­Introduction

When many Americans think about government bureaucracies, negative stereotypes immediately come to mind – adjectives such as “red tape-bound,” “impersonal,” “unresponsive,” “lethargic,” and “undemocratic” are associated with those negative stereotypes.  Similarly, bureaucrats themselves are often labeled as “lazy,” “incompetent,” “insensitive,” and “power hungry” (Van de Walle, 2004).  However, even though many Americans carry these negative stereotypes around in their reservoir of thinking, most adults in the workforce are employed by some type of private, public or nonprofit bureaucracy and depend on government bureaucracies for a wide range of services provided by such public institutions such as schools, hospitals, fire and police agencies, the U.S. Postal Service, the Social Security Administration, etc.  Without bureaucracy, very little in the way of public services would be provided in modern society.  In addition, the social, economic and ecological sustainability we need to promote all depend on the institutional sustainability of those bureaucratic entities of state and local government, public institutions which endeavor to develop, establish, and implement government policies and derivative programs.

Despite the broadcast media’s inordinate focus on the national government, state and local governments actually create and implement the vast majority of public policy, often serving as critical linkages between elected and administrative personnel working at all levels of U.S. government.  The number of sub-national governmental units, particularly special districts, continues to grow vigorously in the United States.  New units of government reflect growing and changing demands on the part of local communities.  More extensive government often means a greater number of both elected officials and public administrators (or bureaucrats).  For the reader interested in careers in state and local government, employment opportunities in public administration experienced tremendous growth over the past decade, and this great workforce expansion involved the creation of opportunities for persons possessing a wide variety of skill sets and abilities.

What is Bureaucracy?

Bureaucracy is nearly as old as civilization itself.  Any reader who has had an interest in archaeology, for instance, knows that some of the earliest examples of human writing are the official documents of bureaucrats or public administrators.  The Sumerian clay-tablets, found in present day Iraq, were written by official government scribes — the bureaucrats of that long-lost society!   Bureaucrats are the most visible aspect of government in daily life; consumers of government goods and services have regular contact with postal workers, law enforcement personnel, road repair or sewage engineers, the water department, traffic engineers, city planners, and many other administrators representing local, state, and national public administrative agencies.

Formally stated, the term bureaucracy reflects a rationally organized hierarchical structure and administrative process composed of professional individuals working in and communicating from well-defined positions placed within a coordinated formal structure intentionally designed to achieve complex goals with maximum effectiveness and efficiency.  Bureaucracy is, therefore, a specific type of formal organization.  In the late-19th century, the highly regarded sociologist Max Weber (pronounced “Mox Vey-bur”) wrote a now-famous treatise on the “ideal type” bureaucracy, and this same treatise is considered to this every day the definitive definition of the term bureaucracy for scholars and researchers worldwide (Weber, 1958).  It is considered a “social invention” – and like technological inventions such as the printing press and the automobile the invention of bureaucracy brought about huge changes in the scale of operation of formal organizations of all kinds, private sector and public sector and non-profit sector all alike.

Weber developed his thinking on bureaucracy on the basis of a close study of many large formal organizations widely regarded as successful in his day, and he identified what he took to be the principal characteristics of a perfect or ideal type bureaucracy – that is, an organization of large scale that could accomplish very difficult tasks such as the mass production of complex durable goods, the harnessing of the energy of a mighty river, or the gaining of victory in armed combat with a worthy adversary.  Not only was it possible to accomplish these grand tasks, but also the goals could be attained with maximum effectiveness and efficiency.  One of the basic assumptions of Weber’s model was that the ideal bureaucracy could accomplish any goal in any nation, be it the production of goods or services for the private market or the provision of goods and services for a town, city, state or entire nation.  Weber thought of bureaucracy as reflecting the application of science to the task of building organizations, with science taking the form rationality (as opposed to tradition, family ties, religious preference, myth, sentiment, etc.) in the design and management of a formal organization.  The design of the organization reflects a scientific division of labor and a type of management characterized by the ongoing pursuit of effectiveness and efficiency without regard to personal favor or sympathy.

Bureaucracies in this Weberian ideal type sense are composed of professional individuals who are carrying out specialized tasks requiring highly focused training and/or targeted experience.  Professionalism is a very important concept in bureaucracy, and the idea is closely tied to the subject of this book — namely, the capacity to build innovative, adaptive and sustainable communities, and to promote the ability among state and local government public administrators to develop the plans, policies and programs in their respective governments and agencies that facilitate the maintenance of sustainable communities.  Professionalism first entails the idea that an individual who occupies an important position in a bureaucracy has gone through appropriate formal education and/or training that prepares him or her to carry out the duties of their position.  Professionals require both appropriate prior education/training and a commitment to lifelong learning related to their chosen profession.  With respect to sustainability, such learning is an absolute necessity as our knowledge expands regarding global climate change and what types of state and local government problem solving challenges will have to be taken on in the coming decade, and beyond.

Along with professionalism, communication is another very important component in the operation of an ideal type bureaucracy.  In Weber’s bureaucratic model, communication was a direct function of an individual’s organizational position within the hierarchy of a bureaucratic system.  Accordingly, the boss communicates “down” to the worker in a manner that is unique to being a boss; workers may communicate to each other, but they take orders from their boss and do not communicate back to him or her unless asked to do so.  Formal communication, both written and oral concerning decision-making, is documented so that there is strict accountability for all outcomes (successes and failures alike) and a record of activities can be carefully studied to improve effectiveness and efficiency.

Finally, bureaucracy in the Weberian sense was developed to accomplish complex goals — such as the mass production of consumer goods like automobiles or the establishment of rural electrification in a nation — through the scientific division of labor.  This specially created structure called bureaucracy designates the specialization of tasks and the careful coordination of activities, using a hierarchy of official positions.  The bureaucratic system uses official channels of communication where activities are documented as to who decided what, to what effect, and at what cost to the organization.  Complex goals virtually always entail long-term objectives, involving problems that cannot be solved easily or quickly.  From your reading of earlier chapters, you realize that good governance in state and local government entails a strong dose of bureaucracy viewed in this Weberian conceptual framework.

Weber’s ideal type model is an important place to start in our discussion of organizational forms present in state and local government, but it is fair to ask the question: Do things really work this way in practice?  The simple answer is “no.”  While bureaucratic structure is easily discernible in state and local government, everyday work activities are a great deal more varied and complex than the ideal type model would lead one to believe.  It can be said that, for the most part, formal structure does not accurately describe the nature of work carried out in state and local government.  This being the case, it is fair to pose another leading question: Is there a better way to inform ourselves regarding the actual role of public administration and public administrators in the governance process?  Fortunately, the answer to that important question is “yes!”

Moving from Bureaucracy to Administration as a System

If an individual were to visualize bureaucracy as an object, how would it be represented?  While some would say a python with all the negative connotations, a more common and realistic perspective would be that of a pyramid.  Just as the pyramids have a single tip at the top, so too do bureaucracies — they have one official leader (chief executive).  The base of a pyramid is wide, which could be symbolic of a large number of offices or positions all reporting to the top of the bureaucracy.  Similar to a pyramid, bureaucracy is viewed as largely immutable and enduring.  Bureaucracy is seen as an inelastic and highly structured process — something that endures despite changes in the world around it.  Viewing state and local government bureaucracy and bureaucrats in this Weberian light would convey the impression that they are not active participants in governance; bureaucrats would simply do the bidding of elected officials.  With all of the training and professionalism required of bureaucrats, however, would it not be wasteful to leave such a large group of well-trained, well-informed and highly experienced persons out of the state and local government governing process?  It turns out that while the Weberian ideal type model of bureaucracy would have us believe that bureaucrats in state and local government are simply passively carrying out the directives of their politically elected “bosses” in the legislative and executive offices of government, the actual truth is that there is a highly active role for state and local government bureaucrats in American government.

The recognition of a legitimate active engagement role for bureaucracy in governance arose when Public Administration and Political Science scholars and reflective practitioners in government service began to conceptualize public administration as an organic process.  What would organic administration look like?  Unlike bureaucracy, an organic process would view public administration in the United States as a highly collaborative enterprise involving people (animate administrative professionals) rather than offices and official positions (Agranoff and McGuire, 2003).  In an organic process, individuals within an organization are seen as possessing unique conditions and values, characteristics that causes them to shape the organizational mission and accomplishment as well as strategic planning for the future (Frederickson et al., 2004; Poister and Streib, 2005; Riccucci et al., 2004).

Additionally, within the paradigm of active engagement the act of administration includes an interactive process occurring between professionals and citizens rather than involving simply a one-way bureaucratic enterprise of policy implementation strictly following the dictates of elected officials (Bacot and Christine, 2006).  The socio-political environment is affected by what administrators will do and how they will accomplish their goals; responsiveness to changing conditions is critical for state and local government agencies (Potoski, 2002).  In the area of parks and recreation, for instance, the changing demographics of our population and changing tastes and preferences of succeeding generations require that the locations and programming available reflect changing patterns of use and demand.  Organic administration entails the active interaction between legislative and executive officials and bureaucrats occurring within a network that is adaptive, one that is capable of responding to the ever changing needs of agency clientele and balancing these adaptive adjustment concerns with the need for the efficient use of public funds.  Public administrators are rightly expected to take an active role in this interaction as able and confident collaborators.

In the 21st century, governance at the state and local level clearly entails building and supporting sustainable communities (Lafferty, 2004).  Sustainability necessarily implies the core traits of adaptability and innovation.  While these traits may create desired outcomes in the state statutes and local ordinances placed into law by elected officials, the accomplishment of these outcomes requires the active involvement of public administrators responding to changing local, state, national, and even international conditions (Bowling et al., 2004).

Around the country – in urban, suburban and rural areas alike – public administrators, non-profit agency managers and staff, and private organizations are increasingly working in an environment in which they attempt to learn from each other and communicate, coordinate and collaborate to bring solutions to the attention of the elected officials to whom they report (Poole et al., 2006; Sapat, 2004; Thomas, 2003).  Administrative capacity for such adaptation and innovation borne of a collaborative learning process is a critical element in the promotion of sustainability in American state and local government.  It is very important that U.S. state and local government not become so much the victim of the “hollow state” phenomenon — a concept of minimalist government entities and maximum use of contracted services — that collaborative learning in service of sustainability does not take place to the extent required by an imperiled plant.

Networks to Somewhere:  The Intertwined Process of Administrative Governance

Network organizations are a type of formal organization that is substantially different from the Weberian ideal type bureaucratic model.  The network organization is touted as a genuinely modern arrangement facilitated by the revolution in intra- and inter-organizational communication permitted by computers and the Internet, but the concept itself is quite long- established.  A reading of the history of organizations that successfully adapt to change in their environments suggests that those organizations which maintain extensive “boundary spanning” activities do tend to make adaptations that make them resilient to changes in their environments, while those that stubbornly insist on the maintenance of long-established practices unique to the organization tend to experience “collapse” (Diamond, 2005).  The adoption of a network approach to bureaucratic organization is prevalent in contemporary American state and local government (Berry et al., 2004).

What is a network organization?  First off, network organizations require the regular interaction of individuals in a variety of positions and with a wide variety of other organizations — e.g., other local, state, national, public, non-profit, and private organizations.  Thinking back to the bureaucratic model for one moment, one could say that there were two key dimensions to bureaucracy — the vertical (power and authority) and the horizontal (equal communication across similar positions).  In network approaches to organization, there are multiple dimensions of interaction, and there are only a few fixed bureaucratic relationships; this is because the character of the network is dependent on circumstances and needs for action existing at any given time.  Communication organizes itself at one point in time around a hub of positions or of knowledge — i.e., the key persons and/or organizations that possess or control action-relevant knowledge or experience.

Actions taken by network organizations are based on knowledge acceptance in relation to organizational purpose or goals.  Action is oftentimes informally initiated and is referred to as swarming – the near simultaneous movement by individuals or organizations to accomplish a shared goal.  Network organizations are so loosely and flexibly organized that the clear command and control exercised by an organizational elite — a common feature often criticized in the bureaucratic model — is often not tenable.  The flexibility and “looseness” of an organization is both its strength and weakness.  Weaknesses arise with respect to holding specific subunits or persons accountable for their work.  On the side of strengths, a network organization that has highly professional and ethical employees who reliably follow-through on commitments made to other members of the network can be an exceptionally effective formal organization (Mandell, 2001).

Network organizations are a critical component of the innovative approach emerging in 21st century democratic governance (Kickert et al., 1997; Lewis, 2006); although, due caution must be observed in establishing and maintaining networks and in assuring collaborative effort quality over time (O’Toole and Meier, 2004; Page, 2004).  Responsive public administration must be aware of private sector adaptations and be willing to engage in public-private partnerships in an increasing number of areas such as green technologies, telework options for employees, and archival database sharing and joint or collaborative analysis.

Knowledge, Skills and Abilities of the 21st Century Administrator

Government’s need for people with diverse sets of knowledge, skills and abilities means that no matter the nature of your specialty, a career in state and local public administration is likely an option for you to consider.  Good governance at all levels of government requires the education, training and skills of a wide array of backgrounds in areas as varied as physical science, natural science, social science, law, medicine, education, engineering, agriculture, communications, criminology and linguistics, to name but a few.  If you are interested in public administration and state and local government service as a potential career, it is possible to pursue educational goals directly related to your own area(s) of interest and personal passion — and, most likely, state or local government public administration will have a place for you in the years lying ahead.  The building and governing of sustainable states and local communities will require many dedicated professionals commanding a whole host of skills and broad range of knowledge for maintaining a vibrant local economy, becoming a responsible steward of the natural environment, and promoting social equity.

In this regard, because new forms of knowledge are emerging at a rapid pace, public service professionals must be committed to life-long learning and ongoing active networking.  This adaptability will continue to be of critical importance in the coming decade.  In the past, bureaucratic organizations valued this type of professionalism, but stultifying hierarchical command and control structures had a palpable devaluing effect.  Traditional bureaucracy has a clear tendency to constrain the behavior of bureaucrats rather than fostering their growth, and inhibiting the development of personal responsibility and good judgment borne of active networking with peers in other organizations (public and private and non-profit alike).  In the administrative governance paradigm described in this chapter, professionalism and a commitment to life-long learning are valued and rewarded because they foster innovation and the adaptability of thought and actions needed to develop, promote, and preserve plans, public policies, and public programs which enhance the sustainability of our communities and promote the adaptability of our states.

The ability to acquire relevant new knowledge and to determine its utility in the governance process is a multi-fold enterprise.  First, governance in our democratic setting necessitates efficacious communication between administrators, elected officials, and citizens in order to determine the full meaning and value of the new knowledge in question.  Administrative governance as we have described it this chapter plays a crucial role in the initiation and maintenance of this three-way dialogue.  Second, the networked communication among similarly trained administrators in other jurisdictions permits the collective assessment of the knowledge value of information, clarifying its validity and relevance to the particular state or local government in question.  Finally, communication is a two-way process between a sender and a receiver of messages.  An important governance role for administrators is to create dialogue with client stakeholders and elected officials in a manner that builds and empowers rather than erodes their sense of efficacy (Dipboye and Colella, 2005).  In the administrative governance process, state and local government public administrators are both “active doers” and “facilitators” who help others become doers.

A clear distinction between “administrators” and “elected officials” must be made here. State and local government administrators must be proficient leaders and executives, but they are not empowered to lead in the same way as elected officials.  Good governance requires that public administrators convince others, through active networking, of the virtue of their solutions to problems — even though this networking activity may not always follow the established ways of doing business.  Just as elected officials sometimes seek to convince voters of needed change, administrators use the public forums available to them — e.g., legislative testimony and public hearings, workshops and training sessions, public access websites, and sponsored conferences — to demonstrate their own type of leadership in the democratic governance process.  Within their respective agencies, state and local government public administrators act as executives, directing their personnel towards large goals, facilitating their acquisition of expertise and specialized training, and seeking to develop interagency ties that will provide needed resources to promote effective current and future administrative governance.

Women and Minorities in Public Administration

In the 19th century, public administrative offices were often used by elected officials to reward their political supporters.  A system of patronage inordinately benefited the dominant political force of the time — namely, white men.  Despite the development of professional public administration, the new civil service systems remained notably biased against ethnic and racial minorities, and against women.  While the 1950s and 1960s witnessed critical national and state legislation dealing with civil rights and equal employment opportunity, substantial barriers to equal employment and equitable promotion persisted nonetheless.  So-called glass ceilings —barriers against advancement to executive positions within state and local bureaucracies (Caceres-Rodriguez, 2013; Connell, 2006; Sentanu and Putra, 2019) — remain a significant obstacle to promotion up the ranks for women.  These barriers to advancement are often a function of both managerial bias in the promotion and evaluation process, and reflect systematic biases that have become codified into the administrative structure.

Even more noxious and persistent has been the “gendering” of certain professions within public administration.  The most identifiable example of this process was the notion that secretarial and management assistant staff positions were viewed as “female jobs.”  Similarly, in law enforcement agencies women were systematically excluded from jobs in patrol divisions because such work was seen as a man’s job.  The area of cultural values and beliefs has proved to be the most difficult obstacle to overcome in the further advancement of women into the managerial ranks in state and local government public administration.  In many jurisdictions, women have sustained claims of sexual harassment against those who perpetrated impermissible actions; however, many other legal actions taken by women seeking to redress their inequitable treatment have proven extremely difficult to bring to successful conclusion.

Racial and ethnic minorities have long faced serious challenges in gaining equal employment opportunity.  Historic discrimination against minorities in state and local administration remains a serious challenge to diversifying administrative employment.  While great strides towards equal treatment have been made in the law, much work remains for people carrying out discretionary actions in hiring and promotional decisions that are based on the true merit of an individual as opposed to considerations of race, ethnicity and gender.  Despite the obstacles facing them, women and minorities have contributed greatly to the building of the 21st century administrative systems needed to create sustainable states and communities.  Glass ceilings are beginning to shatter — women have taken many notable positions as leaders in public administration.  Contrary to the uninformed concerns and blatant stereotypes of white males of an earlier generation, women and minorities have regularly proven to be amongst the most effective and vocal leaders in administration today and making critically important contributions to the governance process.

E-government

Creating sustainable governance is perhaps the principal challenge of the 21st century.  Sustainability does not occur in isolation, but rather takes place in a competitive environment —while one state or community is attempting to create stable and livable conditions, other states and communities are competing for resources and for the attention of sustainable, clean industries.  In this competitive environment, state and local governments frequently find themselves acting in an entrepreneurial way.  A major part of being entrepreneurial in the current setting is streamlining governance (Carter and Belanger, 2005; Norris and Moon, 2005; West, 2004).  E-government plays an important role in this streamlining process.

One example of the power of e-government concerns new efficiency in managing paperwork.  In the past, private industries interested in locating plants and offices in a particular state or local region were negatively impacted by bureaucratic red tape — the seeming mountain of legal paperwork and multitude of permits required in attempting to pursue economic development (Bozeman, 2000).  The time lag between the filing of paperwork and the winning of ultimate approval is said to have driven away countless private industries and entrepreneurs that sought more lucrative business climates while awaiting approvals.

Revolutionary changes in information technology in the 1980s and 1990s led to more accessible, more affordable, and faster computing systems, forever altering the interface between state and local government public administration and their business community clientele.  Increasingly, state and local government public administration has moved toward what is called an e-government model.  Using Internet capability, e-government makes use of on-line forms and processing that reduces unnecessary face time between administrative staff and private industry and small business representatives.  This same process has also streamlined the process of requesting and issuing permits and approvals, thus reducing the costs to investors seeking to develop in a particular state or local area.

E-government frees up administrators to complete other important tasks in the pursuit of sustainable development.  More attention can be devoted to unique cases, and in the process improving the quality of administrator-client relations.  With more time made available, state and local community administrators can conduct outreach efforts to actively promote business relocation and development in their states and communities.  Such things as maintaining an active and updated website become possible.  Additionally, the improved computing network system attracts and retains Generation Y workers and tech-savvy citizens in urban areas.  The continued improvement and development of the seamless administration-client interface of e-government is an extremely important part of the effective pursuit of sustainability in 21st century governance.

Volunteers, Non-Profits and Administration

Governing within the paradigm of sustainability poses challenges to the manner in which administrative governance had been conceptualized previously.  Until quite recently, the function of administration has been thought of as an insular activity carried out by trained professionals.  Administrative governance was something that government did for or to citizen clients.  There was a sense that administrators were experts who required little guidance beyond the strictures of statute, ordinance or common law.  Citizens were seen as largely passive players in the modern governance process.

Recent developments have led administrators to actively recruit community volunteers to work along with administrative agencies (Choudhury, 2010; Gazley and Brudney, 2005).   Take, for instance, the need to elicit volunteers in light of demographic changes in society that are fast approaching – namely, the oldest members of the Baby Boomer cohort are have entered their 60s.  Many of these well-educated individuals were organizational leaders in the public and private sector and fulfilled critical roles in building the governance and private sectors.  As these individuals retire, they are taking with them highly valuable knowledge, skills and abilities not easily replaced.  The well-educated and highly motivated Generation X-ers (the generation following the Baby Boomers) is relatively small, lacking the sheer number of people needed to fully serve in critical administrative governance roles (Lewis and Cho, 2011; Vasquez, 2019). Adding further to the problem, administrative costs are rising significantly, and as the Boomers age, the costs of employee benefits have increased dramatically.  In an atmosphere characterized by both budgetary shortfalls and mounting debt, requesting additional resources to fully meet administrative goals is not likely to be rewarded with new allocations of state or local government resources.  Under these circumstances “doing more with less” is the name of the game.  Considering all of these factors in combination, scholars and practitioners realize that sustainable governance is not solely an administrative enterprise — it is quite clearly a genuine community enterprise.

In recognition of these circumstances, in the early 1990s President Bill Clinton promoted community-based volunteerism through his AmeriCorps initiative, a policy designed to bring a greater number of young people into a broader spectrum of volunteer community and public service activities, with the hope that some involvement in one’s youth would lead to a lifelong commitment to volunteering as these youths matured into adulthood.  Along with pre-existing programs such as Volunteers in Service to America, Learn and Serve America, and the Senior Corps, AmeriCorps is part of the Corporation for National Service.  The AmeriCorps program is particularly noteworthy because volunteers work through a network of nonprofit organizations delivering public goods and services to those most in need.  Non-profit organizations are effectively serving important roles either once fulfilled by administration, or they are supplementing insufficient administrative resources.

Incorporating volunteers into administrative enterprise is both rewarding and challenging.   Volunteers often bring the community closer to administration, and vice versa.  Administrative governance is positively served through keeping a finger on the pulse of the community through a network of volunteers.  In the case of retired volunteers, administrators often note that they are among the hardest working individuals in their office, showing up on time and expending considerable energy performing critical tasks such as answering phones, keeping up on email queries, dealing with clientele, and filing paperwork.  It has been observed that — well-versed in etiquette — older volunteers often put clients at ease and are very effective at obtaining needed information to best solve clients’ dilemmas.  Volunteers may also bring with them the tremendous enthusiasm of youth as they learn new skills and seek to help others.  For example, AmeriCorps involvement in reading programs has demonstrated the role that volunteer enthusiasm can play in accomplishing the goal of adult literacy.  The same is also true in environment-related programs that have young volunteers planting trees, repairing stream flows, and restoring lost indigenous species habitats.

Relying on volunteers in the administrative governance process also proves challenging. Unlike paid employees, volunteers often need to be motivated in unique ways.  They generally need to feel a sense of purpose while carrying out their work, and their efforts to improve governance must be recognized in ways meaningful to them.  Volunteers may indeed offer administrative agencies their time and skills, but they also require time and attention as well.  If they feel ignored or underappreciated, volunteers often rapidly disengage.  A downfall associated with relying on volunteers is that administrators tend to derive a false sense of their own capacity when goals are accomplished without additional full time staff.  When this occurs agencies and political leaders may under-invest in full time human resources, placing agencies at future peril. All difficulties aside, however, there is no doubt that volunteerism continues to have a vital place in the ongoing functioning of state and local government administration.

Historical Trends in State and Local Employment

Over the last several years, trends in state and local government employment in the U.S. have shown varying patterns of recovery following economic downturns, with notable impacts from both the Great Recession and the COVID-19 pandemic.  Between 2017 and 2022, there was a slight decrease in state and local government employment, reflecting broader economic challenges and shifts in public sector work.  In 2022, state and local governments employed approximately 19.2 million people, a slight decline from previous years.  This trend of fluctuating employment levels has been influenced by economic conditions, budget cuts, and policy changes, impacting overall employment stability within the sector (Saxon et al., 2023).​

Post-COVID recovery has been particularly sluggish for state and local government jobs, especially outside of the education sector.  As of mid-2021, the return of jobs in much of the public workforce was lagging as the economy recovered from the pandemic-induced recession. The number of non-education state and local jobs was significantly reduced, with total employment in this area not yet returning to pre-pandemic levels.  Factors such as temporary layoffs and budget pressures have contributed to this slow recovery (Rosewicz and Maciag, 2021).  Retirements are not always replaced by new hires, and some jobs in the helping professions (teaching, law enforcement, nursing in particular) are experiencing significant levels of people leaving the professions in mid-career years for private sector employment.   ​

By January 2024, despite these challenges, state and local government still represented a significant portion of the U.S. employment landscape, responsible for over 20 million jobs.  This sector was the third largest in terms of employment, following professional and business services and healthcare and social assistance (U.S. Department of the Treasury, 2024).​  These patterns reflect the broader economic pressures and policy decisions that influence public sector employment, underscoring the importance of understanding local and national economic trends when analyzing employment statistics in the public sector.

The landscape of diversity in state and local government employment has seen continued attention and fuller development, with particular emphasis on enhancing diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) initiatives.  Recent surveys and reports indicate both progress and ongoing challenges are being experienced in this area.  In 2023, there’s a widespread recognition across sectors that focusing on DEI in the workplace is beneficial, with significant support among employees from minority backgrounds.  The overall sentiment among U.S. workers is that their employers are paying the right amount of attention to DEI, although there’s a call from a substantial portion of the workforce for even greater focus, especially from minority groups who feel underrepresented and under-supported (Minkin, 2023).

Federal and state governments continue to strive for improvements in DEI, with various strategies and targeted efforts to enhance workplace diversity.  The U.S. Government Accountability Office highlights ongoing efforts to model DEI initiatives effectively, with an emphasis on recruiting and retaining a diverse workforce, narrowing pay disparities, and setting clear goals and accountability measures to drive change (GAO, 2023).  Furthermore, the McKinsey 2023 DEI initiatives report emphasizes the importance of understanding specific DEI challenges within organizations and designing context-specific solutions that are closely monitored and adjusted as needed, suggesting a carefully tailored approach to implementing DEI strategies (McKinsey and Company (2023).

However, despite these efforts, recruitment remains a significant challenge, especially post-pandemic, with state and local governments facing high turnover and struggling to fill positions, thereby affecting their ability to maintain diverse and effective workforces (National League of Cities, 2023).  In addition, some states in the U.S. have enacted or are considering legislation that limits or bans diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) programs in the public sector, particularly within higher education and state agencies.  For instance, Alabama and Utah have enacted legislation that prohibits public institutions from maintaining DEI offices or sponsoring programs that promote specific ideologies deemed “divisive.”

Similarly, other states such as Florida and Texas have introduced significant restrictions on DEI efforts.  Florida’s legislation prohibits public universities from using diversity statements in their hiring and admissions processes, and restricts the use of state funds for DEI programs. Texas has also passed laws that ban DEI offices at public universities and limit the ability of these institutions to require or promote DEI initiatives (Anderson et al., 2023).  These legislative efforts reflect a broader trend across several states to scrutinize and sometimes restrict the scope of DEI programs in public institutions, often citing concerns about political bias or the appropriateness of public funding for such initiatives.  The impact of these laws varies, but they generally aim to curtail certain types of diversity training and the operational scope of DEI offices within public sector entities.

These findings illustrate the complexity of enhancing workplace diversity within government sectors, indicating that while there has been progress considerable work remains to fully integrate and capitalize on the benefits of a diverse workforce. This ongoing process requires not only dedicated policies and resources, but also a sustained commitment to understanding and addressing the unique challenges faced by underrepresented groups within the public sector.

In terms of employment trends, clientele service, and salaries, the state and local government picture has looked increasingly rosy over the last quarter century, but all of these data must be considered carefully.  First, there has been an increase in the percentage of employees at the state and local level who are part-time workers.  Part-time workers are often ineligible for many of the benefits associated with full-time employment.  From the managerial perspective, however, the flexibility engendered through managing part-time workers, in essence, brings workers into the workplace on needs-only basis, thus increasing organizational efficiency.  In addition to the growth of part-time employment at the state and local level, private sector contractors play a much larger role in state and local government work.  In some cases, private contractors have taken over the functions of government previously managed by full- or part-time state and local government employees.

Salaries in State and Local Government

Analyzing state government payrolls compared to the private sector offers insight into the general trends in employee investment.  As of 2022, data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) indicate that earnings in the private sector and state government sectors vary.  Specifically, for 2021, the BLS reported that the average annual wages across all sectors included $53,875 for private industry and $54,741 for state government employees (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2024).  This suggests a competitive wage environment between the private sector and state government roles, with state employees on average earning slightly more than their private sector counterparts during this period.  These figures highlight an interesting trend where, contrary to some previous perceptions and historical data, state government compensation can be comparable to or even exceed that of the private sector, depending on the specific year and economic conditions.  This comparison evolves with factors such as inflation, economic policies, and labor market dynamics influencing annual wage adjustments.

When studying salaries from a diversity perspective, women are still paid substantially less than men on average.  White employees still make noticeably more money than minority employees. issues of pay disparity among different demographic groups persist within the state and local government sectors (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2024).  This ongoing disparity not only highlights the challenges in achieving pay equity, but also reflects broader societal and systemic issues that affect public sector employment.

The lack of movement towards greater pay convergence or equity suggests that despite some efforts, there’s still much work to be done to address these inequities effectively.  The absence of diversity in public employment can lead to governance that is less responsive to the needs of a diverse population.  This is particularly critical during times when strong civic community linkages are necessary to foster an inclusive, innovative, and sustainability-promoting society.  The variation in pay and benefits across different jurisdictions can serve as both a barrier and a motivation in attracting a qualified and diverse workforce.  Effective public sector employment policies should aim not only to attract talent, but also to ensure that all employees are treated equitably regardless of gender, race, or other characteristics.

Focus on State and Local Employment: Where Do They Work?

Bureaucracy is a tool of government.  Earlier sections in the chapter illustrate the growth of state and local bureaucracy and the rise of a diverse workforce.  But an important purpose of this book is to help readers figure out the current focus of state and local government and where they might become contributing players in governance.  Therefore, a quick look at the top ten sectors for administrative employment in state and local government and a general look at the top ten average salaries is in order at this point in the chapter.

The greatest area of employment at the state level is in the higher education sector.  Instructors and professors are only one aspect of higher education, of course.  Administrators, buildings and grounds specialists, clerical staff, teaching and research assistants, student employees, and a whole host of other personnel play a significant role in higher education.  After higher education, corrections — which deal with the incarceration and community supervision of convicted individuals — are the second largest state employment sector.  Nearly ten percent of state employees across the country work in the field of corrections within the broader field of criminal justice.  Public health and welfare are prominent employment sectors, as is street and highway management.  Financial administration deals with the proper allocation and accounting of state revenues — in essence, the maintenance of fiscal accountability.  Natural resource management accounts for roughly three percent of state employment.

Average salaries are determined by studying total annual payroll in state employment sectors and dividing by the number of employees in that sector.  This is admittedly a very rough measure, but nonetheless provides interesting evidence.  On average, the top salaried positions at the state level tend to be in science- and engineering-intensive professional fields.  Electric power, air transportation, transit and sewerage are employment sectors that usually entail substantial engineering and physical science education.  If the reader wishes to pursue a well paying position in state government, it would behoove them to consider pursuing math and science education with vigor.  Training in criminal justice or law is also of great value in terms of well-compensated state employment.

As of 2024, the largest local government employer is elementary and secondary education, with that sector employing nearly half (47%) of all local government employees. Of these, the majority (69%) are in elementary and secondary education, followed by 30% in higher education.  Police protection accounts for approximately 5% of local government employment. Fire protection services employ a smaller percentage of the local government workforce.  Public assistance and hospitals each represent about 6% of employment in the local government sector (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2024).

As with the state-level salaries, the best compensated positions in local government are in sectors requiring a strong science and/or engineering background.  Criminal justice and legal training will also improve chances of gaining employment in high salaried local government jobs.  Fire protection increasingly requires a solid understanding of knowledge in the areas of criminal justice, Homeland security, emergency medical assistance, chemistry, biology, physics, health care, engineering, and material science, to name but a few of the areas of expertise.  Education is not in the top ten of highest paying jobs in this sector at either the state or the local level (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2024).

Administration, Governance, and Innovation

When governments are first developed, leaders define institutions.  Later, it is institutions that define and often constrain their leaders.  At the state and local level, for elected leadership, age-old institutional constraints shape and limit the choices possible.  In many ways, elected leaders’ position in state and local governance has weakened.  Governance is the regular decision-making, implementation, and evaluation of policies designed to ensure that public goods are effectively managed or delivered to citizens.  The process of election and re-election also limits state and local elected leaders, often drawing them towards more partisan decision-making as they seek voter support and campaign contributions.

Administrative leaders do not face the same pressures as elected officials.  First, administrative leaders are chosen based on their tenure in administrative ranks and merit-based performance.  Merit relates to the knowledge, skills, and demonstrated abilities of an individual in relation to a job description within an administrative organization.  Second, administrative leaders are hired based on demonstrated merit, usually evaluated in relation to objective analysis of formal training, past experience, and performance on a job-related examination.  Third, administrators are generally granted tenure, a limited property right to employment so long as their job performance remains satisfactory.  For these reasons, administrators are often less distracted in the governance process; constrained by statutory and common law, administrators are usually guided by principles of justice in their decision-making rather than by partisanship.

Theoretically, administrators represent the interests of no single person or group of people; instead, they pursue politically neutral goals.  In the process of serving the public interest, however, administrators come into contact with individuals and groups of individuals who have unique needs.  In some cases, groups of individuals may attempt to influence administrative governance through appeals to elected administrators or through other forms of political pressure.  In either case, administrators are ultimately driven to pursue the public interest, guided by a solid working knowledge and understanding of statutory and common law principles.

Statutes and common law are frequently silent on how day-to-day administrative governance should occur, however, and on just what types of information decisions should be made.  In political decision-making, sources of guidance might be voter or campaign contributor preferences or even partisanship.  In administrative decision making, in contrast, typically legal precedents, administrative capacity, and a professional code of ethics are key sources of guidance for public employees in the governance process.  Additionally, administrators function closely at the client-level, close to the consumer of a public service, placing them in a good position to assess the intent of elected governing institutions in relation to statutory and common law constraints; administrators are often keenly aware of how governance decisions promote or detract from judicious outcomes.

Not all administrators serve so closely to citizen consumers.  Over the course of a career, administrators are promoted from positions closely tied to a customer base into positions of senior administrator authority.  The group with greater authority is generally composed of well-educated, long-serving, and tightly networked individuals.  Education is a product of formal training melded with years of practical experience.  Long career service can be both beneficial and distracting, however.  It is beneficial to the degree that administrators have a sense of what has worked and what has not worked in past attempts at policy innovation and governance.  It is potentially distracting in the sense that long service is often associated with a more conservative or defensive stance, and resistance to the pursuit of important and justifiable risks in governance — risks capable of producing positive results for communities.  Finally, it is the case that long-serving administrators have had time to meet many people and to cultivate trust and mutual respect through sustained regular interaction.  Administrators develop professional networks with elected leaders, interest and community group leaders, and other administrators.  A solid network involves interactions with individuals and groups from different levels of government on an inter-jurisdictional basis.  Senior-level administrators often have access to critical governing networks, greater knowledge, and more experience with day-to-day governing than do most politicians.

Bureaucracy and the Core Dimensions of Sustainability

Often decried by critics, state and local bureaucracy is very well-positioned to advance the core dimensions of sustainability.  Bureaucracy has both the formal and informal structure to meet a complex set objectives effectively and efficiently.  While traditional formal bureaucratic structures can be viewed as hierarchically organized, the day-to-day operations of bureaucrats tend increasingly towards network structures.  Individual state and local government administrators form around and connect with information/knowledge hubs to solve problems of the moment, to meet pressing objectives.

Additionally, the rise of e-government has streamlined bureaucratic processes and reduced costs at a time when such costs are rising and demands on government are growing, often exponentially.  Finally, bureaucracy is well-situated to meet the needs of sustainable governance because it is one of the few forms of government institutions that is designed to govern the commons, and whose basic premises focus on equitable distribution of public resources for the individual and collective benefit.  Elected branches of state and local government are frequently heavily influenced by the demands of a winning coalition, and the individuals and groups who gain the most influence over elected leaders or candidates for public office are the leading forces within those electoral coalitions.  Finally, unlike the elected branches, public administration has a long-term commitment to creating a diverse workforce — a workforce that reflects the nature of a community in the grandest sense of the word.

Looking at the four major objectives of sustainability, as outlined in the first chapter of this book, it should be noted that the principles of sustainable governance are embedded in the basic principles and goals of numerous familiar bureaucratic agencies.  Elected officials have, in many instances, created public institutions to meet the pressing issues of a society.  Social objectives are often met through public health offices, social workers, K-12 schools and universities, corrections agencies, labor bureaus, fish and wildlife agencies and a host of other bureaucratic offices.  In the current economic crises facing state and local governments across the country, politicians may propose increased investment in human capital and the building of strong social capital, but it is often the work of bureaucrats at the street level that turns those often high-minded goals into real world realities.  If these real world efforts to promote the enhancement of human and social capital in the service of community sustainability are not being done by public servants operating by themselves, it is the work of thousands upon thousands of hard-working, highly motivated volunteers who support the efforts of bureaucrats working in a variety of human capital-related initiatives and enterprises.

Sustainable economic activity is one of the core dimensions of sustainability and sustainable governance.  Sustainability demands that the marketplace of the future offers high quality products produced with and made use of with low environmental impact and purchased at a reasonable cost.  In many cases, this means that important trade-offs must be considered and managed effectively.  Locally-grown food and locally-produced goods and services require that state and local workplace dynamics and market conditions must be understood and managed to ensure that the goals of sustainability are achievable in a way that is least intrusive on individual economic freedom and liberty, but that simultaneously protects the interests of the broader community in both the short and long-term.  Politicians may come and go, but it is state and local bureaucrats who will serve in regulatory agencies over the long-haul, getting to know the “regulated” — i.e., the industry actors in their communities — and carefully balancing the needs of the regulated with the needs of the greater society.  The networked bureaucrats in these agencies will have access to their peers in other state and local governments, and efforts to disseminate “best practices” and “evidenced-based” programs promotive of economic sustainability will be promoted first by these people, and subsequently the best ideas will be endorsed and advocated by elected officials in due course.

Environmental sustainability objectives are inextricably wedded to issues of economic sustainability.  Again, bureaucratic agencies, often operating independently or semi-independently of the political process, who manage natural resources will be in forefront of public policy development.  State departments of forestry, state offices of environmental quality and workplace safety, water quality offices, transportation agencies, fish and wildlife agencies and parks and recreation offices are examples of agencies seeking to meet the goals of environmental sustainability.  The work of these agencies is often multi-agency in character, and increasingly involves the use of multi-party collaborative processes designed to find ways in a particular state or in a specific geographic area how productive economic activity can be sustained without undue harm occurring to environmental assets.

Finally, institutional objectives such as facilitating higher population density and reduced urban sprawl in metropolitan areas are often dealt with through the interaction between a multitude of municipal, county, and state planning offices.  Bureaucrats and the bureaucratic agencies in which they work have the know-how, skills and time available to conduct the long range planning processes required to anticipate changes that could call into question the sustainability of communities.  Sustainability demands that state and local governments provide for adequate consideration of the needs of communities today and in the more distant future, and keep in mind the dictum that the current generation must not leave a diminished range of options to achieve prosperity, environmental health and social equity to the next generation.  The infrastructure redesign for the development of renewable energy systems, for instance, will require a century or longer commitment to a better way of providing energy to permit our way of life to endure.  The planners of state and local government will play a critical role in the education of elected officials and the general public alike as to the need for such long-range investment in a sustainable future.

Current Issues in State Bureaucracy

Current issues in U.S. state government bureaucracy span various policy areas, reflecting deep partisan divides and challenges in governance:

Partisan Stalemates: As discussed in previous chapters, partisan differences often lead to legislative stalemates, particularly evident in states such as Kansas, Idaho and Wyoming where proposals for Medicaid expansion and other significant policy reforms are met with strong ideological resistance.  These divisions within state legislatures highlight the broader national issue of partisanship affecting legislative efficiency and the ability to pass bureaucratic reforms aimed at addressing public needs.  Such ideological divides can stall critical healthcare expansions that could benefit many residents in these states and reduce medical costs incurred by the states downstream, underscoring the challenges of navigating policy-making in a politically polarized environment​ (Politico, 2024).

Public Health Initiatives: In response to the ongoing public health challenges, including the opioid epidemic, state governments across the U.S. are actively proposing and implementing initiatives to improve the situation.  These proposals aim to increase funding for educational programs about drug abuse, enhance community health services, and ensure wider availability of life-saving drugs like naloxone, which can reverse the effects of opioid overdoses.  These efforts are part of a broader strategy to tackle the opioid crisis by addressing it from multiple angles: prevention, treatment, and emergency response (Politico, 2024).​ This multi-faceted approach reflects a recognition of the complexity of the opioid crisis and the need for comprehensive solutions that go beyond law enforcement to include health education, community support, and medical intervention.  The goal is to reduce the number of overdose deaths and help individuals struggling with addiction to recover and in due course reintegrate into their communities (Politico, 2024).

Education Reform: School choice and voucher programs are central issues in education reform, especially in states led by Republican lawmakers.  These programs, which allow parents to use government funds to enroll their children in private schools, have sparked significant debate over how taxpayer money is used.  The controversies primarily revolve around what qualifies as acceptable expenses under these programs.  For example, discussions arise about whether funds should be used only for tuition or can also cover other educational costs such as sports equipment or extracurricular activities.  This has led to broader conversations about the purpose and oversight of public funding for private education (Political, 2024).​ This debate reflects deeper ideological divisions about the role of government in education and the best ways to ensure quality education for all students.  Proponents argue that voucher programs offer families more choice and access to potentially higher-quality education, while opponents raise concerns about the diversion of funds from public schools and the lack of accountability in how voucher funds are used (Politico, 2024).

Regulatory and Bureaucratic Complexity: The complexity and inefficiency of the bureaucracy is a major concern in discussions about U.S. government reform.  Efforts to streamline and consolidate functions are ongoing, with various stakeholders arguing over the optimal level of regulation and oversight.  This reflects a broad spectrum of opinions on how best to manage government functions efficiently while ensuring effective governance.

For instance, the Harvard Political Review notes that while bureaucracy is necessary for the organization and implementation of essential government functions, it often becomes excessively complex.  This complexity can hinder the effectiveness of government operations and lead to public dissatisfaction.  The debate continues over how to reform these bureaucratic structures to improve efficiency without compromising the government’s ability to serve the public effectively (Harvard Political Review, 2011).

Demand for Major Government Reform: The increasing public demand for significant government reform is influenced heavily by political affiliations, with a notable divide in how people view the need for reform.  This divide is based on whether they support expanding or streamlining government functions, and these views tend to fluctuate depending on which political party holds power. This phenomenon reflects broader societal debates about the role and proper size of government, with differing opinions on whether government should increase its reach and services or become more streamlined and limited in scope.

This partisan divide in sentiment about government reform can lead to cyclical shifts in policy directions as different parties come into power.  For instance, when a party advocating for smaller government is in control, there might be moves to cut back on government functions and bureaucracy.  Conversely, when a party favoring a more active government role gains power, there could be an expansion in government programs and services.  These shifts not only impact public policy, but also shape public expectations and trust in government​ (Light, 2023).  This ongoing debate over the size and function of government highlights the complex interplay between political ideology and public administration, pointing to the major challenges to be overcome in achieving lasting and effective government reforms that can satisfy a broad spectrum of the public.

Sustainability and Bureaucracies

U.S. state and local bureaucracies can promote sustainability through various strategies and initiatives spanning the areas of policy development and implementation, community engagement, and the integration of sustainable practices into everyday operations.  Here are some of the key ways in which they can advance sustainability to a substantial degree:

Policy and Regulation: Implementing and enforcing regulations that promote sustainability, such as zoning laws that protect natural resources, building codes that require green construction practices, and regulations that reduce emissions from industrial/commercial activities.  Some examples of these efforts include: (1) California’s Title 24 Building Energy Efficiency Standards which are designed to ensure new and existing buildings achieve energy efficiency and environmental quality.  These codes include requirements for the use of energy-efficient materials and technologies such as solar panels and high-performance windows; and (2) The city of Portland, Oregon, has implemented zoning laws that greatly limit development in ecologically sensitive areas such as wetlands and forests.  These laws help maintain biodiversity and natural landscapes, which are critical for ecosystem services such as water purification, stream and river heating, and air quality.

Sustainable Urban Planning: Encouraging sustainable urban development through the creation of green spaces, promotion of public transportation, and support for compact, mixed-use developments that reduce the need for car travel.  Examples include: (1) The High Line in New York City is a renowned example of transforming an old, elevated rail line into a public park. This park not only offers green space in an urban setting, but it also serves as a habitat for various species and a recreational area that enhances the quality of urban life; and (2) Portland, Oregon’s Pearl District is a model of compact, mixed-use development.  It combines residential units, small retail shops, business offices, and amenities within walkable distances, effectively reducing the need for residents to travel long distances for work or leisure.

Renewable Energy Initiatives: Investing in renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, and geothermal to reduce dependence on fossil fuels.  This can include providing incentives for businesses and homeowners to install renewable energy systems.  Examples include: (1) The Alta Wind Energy Center in California is one of the largest wind farms in the world.  Supported by both state incentives and federal tax credits, this project not only contributes significantly to California’s renewable energy goals but also helps in job creation and economic development in the area; (2) The Geysers in Northern California represents the largest complex of geothermal energy production in the world.  State policies and incentives have supported the development and expansion of this facility, which provides renewable electricity to about 725,000 homes.

Many local governments offer additional incentives such as rebates, property tax exclusions, and net metering policies, which allow solar panel owners to sell excess power back to the grid.

Waste Management: Enhancing recycling programs, implementing composting initiatives, and reducing overall waste production through public education campaigns and policies.  Recent examples include: (1) Seattle, Washington, has one of the most effective recycling programs in the United States.  The city mandates recycling for all residents and businesses and has banned recyclable items from regular garbage bins.  This has significantly increased recycling rates and reduced waste sent to landfills; and (2) New York City operates the “Zero Waste” campaign, which aims to eliminate all waste sent to landfills by 2030.  Part of this campaign includes extensive public education efforts to inform citizens about how to recycle correctly and minimize waste in their daily lives.

Water Conservation: Implementing water conservation measures such as water-efficient appliances, smart watering systems for public areas, and policies to manage water resources effectively, especially in drought-prone areas.  Examples include: (1) The Los Angeles Department of Water and Power offers a rebate program for customers who install water-efficient fixtures and appliances, such as high-efficiency toilets, showerheads, and washing machines.  This program not only reduces individual/household water consumption, but also decreases the overall demand on the city’s water supply; and (2) In Denver, Colorado, the City Water Department encourages the use of smart irrigation controllers through generous rebates. These sensor-guided irrigation controllers adjust watering schedules based on real-time weather conditions, significantly reducing unnecessary water use in the maintenance of public and private landscapes.

Public Education and Engagement: Educating the public about sustainability practices and the importance of environmental stewardship.  This awareness-building outcome can be achieved through school programs, community workshops, and public education campaigns.  Examples include: (1) The Green Schools Program, initiated by various states including Washington (Washington State Department of Ecology) and Massachusetts, the Department of Environmental Protection along with the Department of Elementary and Secondary Education work jointly to integrate environmental education into the school curriculums.  This program focuses on teaching students about renewable resources, waste reduction, and sustainable living practices, often involving hands-on projects like school gardens or recycling drives; and (2) Austin, Texas runs community-based neighborhood-level workshops that teach residents sustainable practices such as rainwater harvesting, composting, and energy efficiency in home settings.  These workshops are typically free or low-cost, making them accessible to a broad audience and promoting community-wide environmental stewardship.

Economic Incentives: Providing tax breaks, subsidies, and grants for sustainable practices and technologies. This can encourage businesses and individuals to adopt more sustainable practices.  Examples include the following: (1) The city of Austin, Texas Office of Sustainability offers a range of local incentives, including rebates for water conservation measures, energy audits, and solar panel installations.  These incentives are designed to make sustainable options more financially viable for a broad range of residents and small businesses; and (2) In New York, the state government offers a subsidy program for electric vehicles (EVs) through the New York State Energy Research and Development Authority.  This program provides rebates of up to $2,000 for the purchase of new electric cars, thereby making them more affordable for New York consumers.

Green Public Procurement: Adopting public agency procurement policies that prioritize environmentally friendly products and services.  This action on the part of public agencies can influence market demand and encourage suppliers to adopt sustainable practices.  Examples include: (1) California has implemented comprehensive green purchasing policies through its Department of General Services.  The state mandates that agencies purchase environmentally preferable products, such as recycled paper, energy-efficient electronics, and vehicles with low emissions.  These requirements are part of a broader strategy to reduce environmental impact across state operations: and (2) In the City of Minneapolis, Minnesota, the Property Services Division and the Department of Public Works have focused on sustainable procurement practices specifically in the construction and maintenance of municipal buildings. This effort includes prioritizing the use of sustainable materials, ensuring that energy efficiency standards are met, and requiring that all contractors and major suppliers comply with environmentally friendly practices.

Collaboration and Partnerships: Engaging with other government agencies, non-profit organizations, businesses, and community groups to develop and then implement sustainability initiatives.  Examples include: (1) The Chesapeake Bay Program is a regional partnership that includes federal, state, and local governments, as well as non-profit organizations and academic institutions.  The program coordinates efforts to restore and protect the Chesapeake Bay through various initiatives targeting water quality, habitat restoration, and pollution reduction; and (2) The Seattle 2030 District is an innovative, public-private collaborative effort in Seattle that aims to dramatically reduce environmental impacts of building construction and operations.  The highly publicized initiative involves property owners, community stakeholders, and government officials working together to meet ambitious sustainability targets for energy, water, and vehicle emissions.

Monitoring and Evaluation: Establishing systems to monitor the effectiveness of sustainability initiatives and making timely adjustments as needed to improve outcomes. Examples include: (1) The city of Denver, Colorado, Denver Water (water department) uses advanced metering infrastructure (AMI) to monitor water usage in real time.  This technology allows the city to identify spikes in water use, detect leaks, and evaluate the success of water conservation programs.  The data gathered helps inform policy decisions and public education efforts; and (2) California’s Air Resources Board operates one of the most sophisticated air quality monitoring networks in the country.  This system assesses the impact of regulations and measures aimed at reducing emissions from vehicles and industrial sources, providing critical data for regulatory adjustments and public health advisories.

In conclusion, U.S. state and local bureaucracies are pivotal actors in fostering sustainability through a multi-faceted approach including regulatory frameworks, urban land use planning, public policy development and implementation, renewal energy initiatives, waste management, water conservation, public engagement, economic incentives, green procurement, collaborative partnerships, and rigorous monitoring.  These several strategies are integrated into broader policy initiatives that not only aim to enhance environmental quality, but also ensure sustainable development across various sectors.

Conclusion

The chapter began by discussing the negative stereotypes many Americans have concerning bureaucracy and bureaucrats.  While there are many reasons for the advent of these negative stereotypes, ultimately, they may have much to do with what Barry Bozeman calls the “inherently controlling” nature of bureaucracy (Bozeman, 2000):

However, as this chapter has sought to communicate, while state and local bureaucracy does often involve control by seemingly “disinterested” administrators, state and local bureaucrats are also key actors in the ultimate achievement of sustainable communities.

While the bureaucratic model may be a thing of the past in American politics, good governance will always be an ongoing goal.  State and local government administration are evolving into increasingly sophisticated enterprises at a rapid pace.  Community needs are changing and increasing in scope and, therefore, administrators in state and local government need to find ways to meet these needs while keeping costs of operation as low as possible.  The use of e-government, as mentioned earlier, has greatly increased efficiency and effectiveness of government administration.   A cooperative relationship within and across organizations is dealing to making better use of both human and fiscal resources.  The demand for person-to-person service has forced innovation — and the strategic use of retirees and youthful volunteers has become a prominent element in modern governance as a direct consequence.  Employment at the state and local level is and will continue to improve in the years ahead.  Bureaucrats, in the truest sense, play an essential and respectable role in the organization and administration of our state and local governments.

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