Glossary

A U.S Supreme Court decision in 1955 conferring the responsibility on local school authorities and the federal courts for implementing the principles of integrating public school students as mandated in the 1954 Brown v. Board of Education decision.

A landmark case from 1954 wherein the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that “separate and equal” schools for black and white children were unconstitutional.

U.S. Supreme Court case upholding the University of Michigan Law School's affirmative action policy, deciding that race can be one of several factors considered when making admission decisions because such a policy furthers "…the educational benefits that flow from a diverse student body."

A case with great ramification decided in 1988 by the Federal District Court for Western Washington favoring the protection of an endangered species over the continuation of timber harvesting. This case is broadly considered a landmark decision in social and environmental justice advanced through proactive governmental action.

The 1896 U.S. Supreme Court case ruling that “separate but equal” public facilities were consistent with the equal protection clause of the 14th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution; the Supreme Court’s ruling meant that racial segregation is acceptable so long as the services provided by government for different races were basically comparable.

Case where the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that quota systems (percent set aside for racial minorities) in affirmative action were not permissible under the equal protection clause of the 14th Amendment of the constitution. In that decision the Court upheld the legality of affirmative action in cases where “strict scrutiny” standards require the showing of how race should be among various factors (not the exclusive factor) taken into consideration in university admissions processes.

This U.S. Supreme Court case, decided in June 2023, challenged Harvard University's admissions policies, alleging they discriminated against Asian-American applicants. The Court ruled that Harvard's use of race in admissions violated the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. This landmark decision effectively ended affirmative action in college admissions, requiring universities to reevaluate their admissions policies to ensure compliance with the new legal standards.

U.S. Supreme Court 1971 case ruling that local education districts across the nation can use mandatory busing as a policy to achieve racial integration in their schools.

The ability of institutions, systems, and individuals to adjust to potential damage, to take advantage of opportunities, or to cope with the consequences.

“Hearings officers” who work within administrative agencies, engaging in regulatory actions that give rise to many disputes (environmental regulations, labor/management actions under collective bargaining agreements, compensation for damages incurred from state government action on one’s property, etc.).

Rules and regulations issued by state executive branches based on legislative authority granted in statutes, reviewable by the courts.

Refers to the range of structural and management systems that support the provision, delivery, and quality control of water for agricultural purposes. This includes irrigation systems like canals, pipelines, and ditches, as well as storage systems such as reservoirs, tanks, and ponds.

A federal assistance program in the United States that provided financial support to low-income families with children. Established in 1935 as part of the Social Security Act, AFDC aimed to help needy families meet basic needs and reduce child poverty. The program provided cash payments to eligible families based on income and resources. AFDC was replaced in 1996 by the Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) program, which introduced stricter work requirements and time limits on assistance.

Something that conduces one to comfort and convenience; a luxury.

A philosophical perspective that views human needs and interests as of the highest value and importance — contrasting with various biocentric (life-centered) perspectives, which assume that nonhumans are also carriers of value.

Population of children and teenagers who are considered especially vulnerable and engage in activities that might put expose them to enduring negative consequences in adulthood.

A term used for a person who was born between 1946 and 1964; this group makes up approximately 20 percent of the U.S. population.

A financial plan in which total revenues are equal to or greater than total expenditures within a specific period, typically a fiscal year. In government finance, a balanced budget means that the government does not spend more money than it receives from taxes and other income sources, thereby avoiding deficits. This practice is often considered a sign of fiscal responsibility, as it prevents the accumulation of debt and promotes sustainable financial management.

Values that prioritize the intrinsic worth of all living beings, including humans, animals, plants, and ecosystems. These values emphasize the interconnectedness and interdependence of all life forms, advocating for the protection and preservation of biodiversity and natural environments.

Advocates for equal treatment of individuals in human society and the other elements of the “biosphere.”

Broad grants to states for certain activities — including welfare, childcare, education, social services, preventive health care, aging, and health services.

Political parties trying to appeal to the largest number of people, more concerned with gaining votes and winning elections than with maintaining rigid ideologies, and willing to alter policies to gain political support.

The common name for the Our Common Future report issued by the United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) and published in 1987. The Report is deemed the origin of sustainability and sustainable development and laid the groundwork for the convening of the 1992 Earth Summit.

An organizational system characterized by a hierarchical structure, a clear division of labor, formal rules and procedures, and a focus on efficiency and consistency. In government and large organizations, bureaucracy refers to the administrative framework that manages public policies, services, and regulations through appointed officials and specialized departments. Bureaucracies are designed to implement decisions and maintain order by ensuring that tasks are carried out according to established guidelines, minimizing personal discretion and promoting uniformity in decision-making.

The ability of government agencies to attract and retain professionals to bureaucratic positions that requires public agencies to be relatively well-funded, professional in operation, and effectively organized.

U.S. Congress-appropriated funds for a specific purpose, such as school lunches or for building airports and highways; subject to detailed federal conditions, often on a matching basis whereby state and/or local governments put up a share of the funding.

A meeting, in particular a meeting of people in public office whose goal is political or organizational change.

A writ of a superior court to call up the records of an inferior court or a body acting in a quasi-judicial capacity for official condition of disputed legal claims.

Public schools that can operate with fewer regulations than apply to traditional public schools.

When the three branches of government – executive, legislative, and judicial -- share power rather than allowing one branch to have substantial power over the others.

Groups of citizens which form an organization to advocate for specific public policies.

Ideology emphasizing the observance of the rights of individuals accused of crimes and advocating for treatment and rehabilitation programs and “second chance” opportunities for offenders who have served their sentences.

Fundamental rights and freedoms that are protected from government interference and guaranteed by a constitution or other legal frameworks. These liberties include freedoms such as speech, assembly, religion, and the press, as well as the right to privacy and protection from unlawful government actions like unreasonable searches and seizures.

A political philosophy placing high value on individual freedom based on a belief in natural rights that exist independent of government, as reflected in the Bill of Rights – the first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution.

The law defining EPA's responsibilities for protecting and improving the nation's air quality and the stratospheric ozone layer; this legislation authorized the development of comprehensive federal and state regulations to limit atmospheric emissions from both stationary (industrial) sources and mobile sources; the adoption of this very important legislation occurred at approximately the same time as the National Environmental Policy Act establishing the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).

Based on the Federal Water Pollution Control Act from 1972, the Clean Water Act of 1977 (CWA) establishes the basic structure for regulating discharges of pollutants into the waters of the United States and regulating quality standards for surface waters. The CWA made it unlawful to discharge any pollutant from a point source into navigable waters unless a permit is obtained prior to discharge.

A primary wherein only persons who are registered members of a political party can vote using the ballot of that political party.

Refers to the cooperative efforts and interactions between the federal, state, and local governments to achieve common goals and address shared challenges. Collaboration in this framework involves the coordination of policies, resources, and actions to effectively manage areas of joint concern, such as disaster response, public health, infrastructure, and education. This cooperative approach allows different levels of government to leverage their unique strengths and capabilities, share information and expertise, and create more comprehensive and effective solutions

Type of municipal government that divides the responsibilities of the municipality among council members; each commissioner holds executive power over a major public works department (e.g., water, sanitation, roads).

Is a system of legal principles in both criminal and civil law established based on judicial precedents rather than statutory laws; may be codified into a statute or overruled by a statute enacted by the legislative and executive branches acting in concert.

A 19th-century initiative in the United States that aimed to establish a system of free, publicly funded schools accessible to all children, regardless of their social or economic background. Led by education reformers like Horace Mann, the movement advocated for universal education to promote civic virtue, reduce inequality, and create a more informed and responsible citizenry. The common schools were intended to provide basic education in reading, writing, arithmetic, and moral instruction, laying the foundation for the modern public school system in America.

A political philosophy emphasizing the need to balance individual rights and interests with those of the community, positing that individuals should reflect the culture and prevailing values of their communities.

Movement to connect local police agencies with citizens, emphasizing collaborative problem-solving and partnerships, building policies to identify current and future problems, and promoting mutual respect between the police and the people they are sworn to serve.

Refers to the ability of a community to maintain and improve the well-being of its members over the long term while preserving environmental, social, and economic resources. It involves developing practices and policies that promote environmental stewardship, social equity, economic stability, and cultural vitality. A sustainable community aims to balance these interconnected aspects by ensuring access to essential services, fostering strong social networks, supporting local economies, and protecting natural ecosystems.

A policy designed to directly address the specific needs, preferences, and challenges of a particular community. Such policies prioritize local input, values, and conditions, aiming to improve the well-being of community members and enhance the quality of life within the community. Community-focused policies often involve engaging local stakeholders in the decision-making process, fostering inclusive participation, and tailoring solutions that are culturally, socially, and economically relevant to the community. These policies emphasize localized approaches rather than one-size-fits-all solutions, ensuring that the unique characteristics and priorities of the community are at the forefront of policy development and

Grant proposal in which applicants design a project addressing an RFP (request for proposal) and a funding agency ranks the proposals to provide grant awards in an open, competitive process.

Type of federal system of government wherein the states operate as a sovereign government and the legislature of any one state can set its own laws independently of any other state.

The assistance given to constituents by Members of Congress and the 50 state legislatures in non-legislative areas (e.g., assisting citizens in their dealings with federal or state agencies, providing letters of recommendation for the military academies, arranging meetings with government dignitaries, etc.

The most traditional method to propose a new state constitution or revise an existing constitution, the initiation of which requires a formal call from the legislature; this is an action which all 50 state legislatures and the District of Columbia are empowered to do.

A system of governance premised on the belief that government can and should be legally limited in its powers, and that its rightful exercise of authority depends on observing these limitations established as the rule of law.

Type of federalism where federal, state, and local governments are integrated to act cooperatively, solving common problems in a cooperative manner rather than making policies separately or clashing over a policy in a system largely dominated by the national government.

See "Collaborative governance"

Refers to a business model in which companies integrate social and environmental concerns into their operations and interactions with stakeholders. It goes beyond compliance with regulatory requirements, emphasizing voluntary actions that contribute positively to society.

Refer to political subdivisions within states that are granted authority by state governments to manage local affairs. Local governments are responsible for providing services and addressing issues that directly affect their communities, such as public safety, education, transportation, sanitation, and zoning. While they operate under the legal framework and authority established by their respective state governments, local governments have the flexibility to enact policies and regulations tailored to the specific needs and preferences of their residents.

Local government unit that provides only specific minimal public services such as police protection, library facilities, or television translator services.

Refer to conflicts between groups with differing values, beliefs, and lifestyles, typically within a society. These disputes often center on issues such as religion, morality, education, and politics, with each side striving to influence public policy and societal norms according to their own views. Culture wars highlight deep divisions on fundamental issues and are characterized by intense political and social debates.

Arising due to rapid technological innovation in the United States where many policy problems are highly technical and science-based in nature and require a substantial scientific knowledge base to manage effectively. This “quandary” questions whether the authority of those with specialized technical knowledge will supplant the democratic process of decision-making when elected officials and the citizens lack the scientific knowledge base and understanding of the technologies involved.

A type of special district with a population of residents occupying a specific geographic area, featuring a legal governing authority, maintaining a legal identity separate from any other governmental authority, possessing the power to assess a tax for the purpose of supplying public services and exercising autonomy.

A community intentionally planned with specific goals for function in mind; developed communities can be freestanding homes, condominiums, or multi-family apartment complexes.

State-national government power relations are embedded in the U.S. Constitution, granting the states almost unlimited authority aside from limitations imposed by the Constitution and resulting federal statutes; in terms of state-local power relations, Dillon argued that states create local government and hold supreme power over all local governments within the several states.

Programs are initiatives implemented within organizations to foster a more welcoming and supportive environment for all individuals, regardless of their race, gender, sexual orientation, age, disability, or cultural background. These programs aim to promote fairness, ensure equal opportunities, and encourage representation and participation from diverse groups. By addressing systemic inequalities and enhancing cultural competency, DEI programs work towards creating a more inclusive culture that values and respects differences, supports professional growth, and improves organizational outcomes.

Refers to the distribution of powers and functions between the national (federal) government and the individual state governments. This division is outlined by the U.S. Constitution, which establishes a system of shared sovereignty where certain responsibilities, such as national defense and foreign policy, are reserved for the federal government, while others, such as education and public safety, are primarily managed by the states. Some responsibilities, like transportation and healthcare, are shared between both levels of government. This division is designed to balance power, allowing for a flexible and dynamic system that can adapt to the needs of both the nation as a whole and the diverse preferences of individual states.

Type of federalism positing that the Constitution allows a limited list of powers to the national government, leaving the rest to the sovereign states; each level of government is dominant within its own sphere; the Supreme Court serves as the mediator between the national government and the states when disputes arise.

The system of separate state and federal courts that make up the judicial system of the United States.

Technological innovation where government uses the Internet to engage citizens in the policy-making process through electronic voting technologies, electronic information exchange, and online forums.

The use of information and communication digital technologies to provide and improve government services, transactions and interactions with citizens, businesses, and communications between branches of the government; this technological development has also been referred to as “on-line government,” and “transformational government.”

Federal statute that provides federal funding for low income and disadvantaged children through the distribution of funds to state and local educational systems.

The theory that political power is held by a small and wealthy group of people sharing similar values and interests and mostly coming from relatively similar privileged backgrounds; the “power elite” can effectively dictate the main goals for policy making by virtue of their control over the economic resources of the major business and financial organizations in the country.

Political action aimed at creating change through challenging the status quo through direct action such as demonstrations, boycotts, strikes, and petitions.

The provisions of law by which the federal, state, and local governments can appropriate private property in service to community interests (e.g., the building of roads, the creation of infrastructure, the location of public facilities, etc.

Federal stature enacted in 1973 providing for the protection of ecosystems upon which threatened and endangered species of fish, wildlife, and plants depend.

A type of citizenship where members of a community take an ongoing active role in matters of public affairs.

A federal stature which replaced the 2002 No Child Left Behind Act in 2015 supporting local evidenced-based and place-based K-12 education initiatives.

Taxes related to consumer consumption behavior such as sales taxes, motor fuel taxes, cigarette taxes, distilled spirits taxes, and fees (parks, permits, etc.).

In public sector economics, refers to how the central government applies grants and payments to state and local levels of government.

A single income tax rate for all citizens regardless of income level.

Grant given to a state or local government to accomplish a national policy goal adopted by Congress based on “need” (e.g., number of homeless persons, number of families affected by wildfire, etc.).

A developed private community with a few common characteristics: physical barriers to entry and movement, the privatization and communal control of public spaces, and privatization of public services such as trash removal and police forces. Typically governed by a homeowner’s association.

Federal and state trial courts dealing with both civil and criminal cases, and whose jurisdiction is based on geographical area. Federal trial courts are called District Courts (e.g., Federal District Court for Eastern Washington).

Responsible for a wide range of public services, including such entities as counties, parishes and manipulates (cities, towns, villages, townships); can be contrasted with special purpose governments (or special districts), such as school districts, water districts, public health districts, library districts, and transit districts.

Transformation in neighborhoods wherein renewal and rebuilding of deteriorating areas leads to the displacement of low-income residents with high-income residents living in high-cost housing units no longer affordable to former residents.

The process whereby voting district lines are redrawn to maximize the strength of the majority party and weaken the minority party.

An intangible barrier within an organization that prevents minorities or women from advancing to upper-level positions.

The current worldwide expansion of economic markets through trade and financial flows, and the transfer of culture and technology in such a way as to displace the original culture and traditional way of life with Western capitalistic market-oriented values and norms.

See “collaborative” and “cooperative” governance

Also known as Renewable Energy Certificates (RECs) or Renewable Energy Credits, represent proof that one megawatt-hour (MWh) of electricity has been generated from a renewable energy source, such as wind, solar, or hydroelectric power. Green tags can be bought and sold independently of the actual electricity produced, allowing businesses and individuals to support renewable energy production and claim the environmental benefits associated with clean energy use.

A pre-school program for young disadvantaged children with the stated purpose of preparing these children for the rigors of the first grade.

A widely studied theory developed by Brandeis University psychologist Abraham Maslow related to human motivation. The theory holds that when lower needs such as physiological, safety, love/belonging are met, higher needs such as need for esteem and “self-actualization” become the primary motivation for human behavior. This is a foundational element of “positive psychology” and much research in education and counseling psychology.

The power delegated by states (see Dillon’s Rule) to a local city or county that is granted to independently create and manage some aspects of governmental affairs at the local level (e.g., form of government, local referenda, local taxes, etc.).

A type of regional special district that includes more than one county in its service area.

Governmental problems are viewed in terms of the primacy of individual rights and benefits — communal solutions are not highly valued; this type of political thought emphasizes the conception of the democratic order being viewed as a “marketplace” where minimal government presence is instituted for strictly utilitarian reasons. Government exists to take on only those functions demanded by the people it serves.

Signed into law by President Biden on November 15, 2021, this is a comprehensive infrastructure package that allocates $1.2 trillion over the next decade. The bill includes $550 billion in new federal spending to upgrade and expand the nation's infrastructure. Key investments include funding for highways, bridges, public transit, rail systems, broadband expansion, water infrastructure, and the power grid. The IIJA aims to improve the nation's infrastructure, create jobs, stimulate economic growth, and enhance public services, while also addressing climate resilience and environmental remediation.

A form of direct democracy by which a petition signed by a specified number of registered voters can force a public vote on a proposed statute, constitutional amendment, charter amendment or ordinance.

Legislative bodies, executive departments, and the courts involved in the public policy process and the governmental agencies dealing with public affairs under their oversight.

The ability of institutions (formal organizations, public sector and private) to withstand major stressors without major disruption.

A political system, such as found in parliamentary systems, where the executive and legislative branches are integrated.

Directly related to federalism and multi-state arrangements within the American federal system; this term refers to national-state or national-local agreements or inter-state and inter-local agreements of various kinds wherein governments at two or more levels collaborate on addressing matters of mutual interest (e.g., Colorado River water allocation, U.S.-Canadian Columbia River management, cross-state extradition of criminals, multi-county transportation systems, etc.).

A political philosophy promoting the strength of the executive branch of government over the legislative branch, while also seeking to broaden the channels for the public's active participation in government.

Refers to the allocation of power between federal courts and state courts, whereby state Supreme Courts address their own state’s constitutional claims first in a case involving constitutional claims, and only consider federal constitutional claims when cases can not be resolved on state grounds (the increased influence of states’ constitutions within their judicial system, particularly regarding civil rights).

A series of legal stipulations, processes and policies that govern how land can be used in different areas. These regulations can determine what types of buildings and economic activities are allowed in certain zones, and often set requirements for environmental protection, building densities, and the preservation of open space or agricultural land. They are a key tool for city and regional planning, helping to shape the economic development and growth of communities, manage natural resources sustainably, and minimize environmental impacts. These regulations are often established by local government authorities and can be influenced by regional and national policies as well.

Ideology emphasizing the protection of public order through close monitoring of citizen conduct and the exacting of severe punishment on proven criminals.

Leadership in Environment and Energy Design is a highly respected, ecology-oriented building certification program run under the U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC).  Five key areas of environmental and human health are covered by the LEED building classification system: energy efficiency, indoor environmental quality, materials selection, sustainable site development, and water savings.

The legislature’s authority to review and evaluate selected activities of the executive branch, and the responsibility of developing the state budget on an annual basis.

Action by the legislature and the governor placing a specific piece of legislation on the ballot for voters to express their views on approval or disapproval.

The continual acquisition of knowledge and skills throughout one’s life through either formal education or self-directed learning.

Power of an executive to strike or cancel specific provisions of a bill, usually budget appropriations, without vetoing the entire legislative package. This power is subject to legislative override – normally requiring a “super-majority” (often 2/3s in both houses of the state legislature).

How institutions and the associated governmental processes affect the lives of citizens (e.g., expansion of access to higher education by waiver of tuition to community colleges, provision of access to medical marijuana, etc.).

Refers to a political philosophy and approach that prioritizes local communities' self-governance, decision-making, and interests. It advocates for the transfer of powers from central government to local authorities or community groups, aiming to empower local entities to shape their policies and actions in accordance with their unique needs, values, and aspirations. It can cover a broad spectrum of governmental action, including the selection of economic strategies, provision of educational programs, healthcare access promotion, and land use planning. It emphasizes the importance of local identity, community participation, and the tailoring of solutions to local circumstances rather than the adoption of one-size-fits-all mandates from higher levels of government.

A requirement under the Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) program that mandates states to maintain a certain level of their own financial contribution towards welfare programs. Specifically, states must spend at least 80% (75% if they meet work participation rate targets) of what they historically spent on welfare programs in the years prior to TANF's establishment in 1996.

An authorization to act with the authority of government given to a specific public agency or non-profit citizen group (e.g., state League of Women Voters to register voters).

Federal court legal settlement agreement from 1998 with the tobacco industry after a suit filed by multiple State Attorney Generals wherein the major tobacco companies agreed to compensate for some medical costs associated with the effects of smoking-related illnesses, as well as to curtail the production of some tobacco products.

The phenomenon of international homogenization in culture, lifestyles, and technology that accompanies globalization. Term first coined by George Ritzer, whose own ideas of "McDonaldization" and "hyper-rationality" derive from the theories of the highly regarded sociologist Max Weber.

A national-state cooperative health care program designed to serve the medical service needs of low-income individuals and families across the country who often are not protected by private healthcare insurance.

An agreement between two parties in the form of a legal document, which can define the terms of partnerships (benefits and obligations of parties) formed between agencies within one level of government or across levels of government.

see "Missouri Plan"

System of pay where compensation is made dependent on the performance of employees.

Rather ideological in orientation, these parties enter elections with a “manifesto” or “platform” to be undertaken. These parties tend to maintain a high degree of control over their membership, monitoring carefully who is and is not allowed to make use of the party label as a candidate.

Complex system for judicial appointment that was designed to combine methods of appointment with popular election. Under the provision of the Missouri Plan, candidates for judicial vacancies are closely reviewed by independent, bipartisan commissions of lawyers and prominent lay citizens prior to selection by a governor. Typically, an election for retention of the judge is put to voters after one year of the judge’s service.

Society’s problems are viewed in terms of “community dilemmas” that must be addressed through active interchange leading to a community choice. This school of thought emphasizes the commonwealth conception as the basis for democratic government, whose responsibility it is to promote the general welfare and reflect the “I am my brother’s keeper” sense of moral duty.

An electoral district returning more than one member to a representative assembly or legislative body.

One of the first environmental laws ever written, NEPA (1969) requires all federal agencies to consider the environmental impacts of proposed federal projects which could materially affect the natural environment.

Reached in 2021, it involves agreements with major pharmaceutical companies, including Johnson & Johnson and the three largest drug distributors—McKesson, Cardinal Health, and AmerisourceBergen. The settlement totals up to $26 billion over 18 years and aims to address the opioid crisis by providing funds to state and local governments for prevention, treatment, recovery, and harm reduction programs. The settlement seeks to mitigate the public health impact of the opioid epidemic and support communities in combating opioid misuse and addiction.

A political perspective promoting the importance of economic growth, free market and free trade, and reduced government regulation of the economy. It reflects the belief (perhaps not justified) that social justice occurs most fully under conditions of minimum interference by the government and maximum room provided for the forces of the free market.

Refers to the collaboration and communication between different bureaucratic agencies, departments, or organizations to achieve common goals or coordinate policies and services. This process involves sharing information, resources, and expertise across various levels of government or within large organizations to enhance efficiency, improve problem-solving, and ensure a more cohesive and integrated approach to public administration. Bureaucratic networking helps reduce duplication of efforts, bridge gaps between siloed departments, and foster more responsive and adaptive governance.

An extensive economic reform package initiated by Franklin D. Roosevelt (FDR) in the 1930s that sought to relieve the damaging effects of the Great Depression through reforming financial and business practices and providing direct assistance to the unemployed and aged. It provides the foundation of the modern “administrative state” at the federal level, and likewise the administrative growth of the state and local governments across the country.

2001 federal statute directed at promoting more effective learning by primary school children. The law was created to improve the performance of both students and their schools by using standardized test scores to measure goal educational attainment in primary and secondary public schools.

Individuals or groups independent of the government which are involved in the public policy process. This would include political parties, interest groups, social movements, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), the mass media, and individual citizens.

Public offices where elected candidates run for office without specifying a political affiliation. This generally applies for local government offices such as school board members, commissioners in local special districts, judicial officers and many states boards and commissions.

Primary elections wherein voters may cast a vote on a ballot of any party; voters do not need to be declared members of a specific political party in order to vote for that party's candidates.

An authoritative decree or law set forth by governmental authority.

A system of government where voters can initiate and vote upon statutes or constitutional revisions (see initiative).

Underlying values, beliefs, and ways of interacting that contribute to the psychological and social environment of a private organization or public agency.

Common legislative form using the integration of powers and where the legislative branch chooses the prime minister or president (head of government).

The power to make appointments to government jobs for political advantage and/or as a form of payment for political support.

Process for public sector budgeting that links requests for new resources with documentation illustrating the outcomes associated with budget choices made in previous years (using the logic of “return on investment”)
pivotal variable: the focal point upon which other variables depend (e.g., days of sunshine and soil fertility are predictive of agricultural production, but water availability is the pivotal factor in crop yield).

The focal point upon which other variables depend (e.g., days of sunshine and soil fertility are predictive of agricultural production, but water availability is the pivotal factor in crop yield).

An ideal-type democratic theory positing that American democratic political process is genuinely open to the involvement of any group that wishes to participate; some of the fundamental constitutional principles embedded in the U.S. Constitution (namely, freedom of speech, freedom of assembly, and freedom to petition government for the redress of grievances) which constitute the core elements of pluralist theory as developed by the prominent political scientists Robert Dahl and David Truman.

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) defines point source pollution as a single identifiable source of environmental pollution that is discharged from a pipe, factory, ship, smokestack ditch, etc.

Refers to the growing division and ideological distance between political parties or groups within a society, resulting in increased partisanship and decreased willingness to compromise. This phenomenon is characterized by more extreme and opposing political beliefs, reducing common ground and cooperation between different sides. Political polarization can lead to gridlock in government, heightened social tensions, and a more fragmented political landscape, making it challenging to achieve consensus on policies and governance.

Attitudes, values, and beliefs about a political system attributable to a community (nation, state, or locality).

The expectation of a citizen that the rules and practices derived from public institutions are fair and unbiased; that the performance of a political institution is competent and appropriate; and that rules and procedures encourage innovation and produce outcomes that improve governance and society.

Refers to the appropriation of government spending for projects that are not necessarily economically viable but pursued because of their appeal and benefit to particular strategically located constituents.

A phenomenon occurring due to the new wealth accumulated in advanced societies where priorities have shifted from subsistence to a focus on well-being, self-expression, and quality of life.

A society where the resources of labor and capital have been importantly supplemented by knowledge and information as major sources of wealth creation; this change is reflected in a major shift in societal focus from manufacturing industries to service industries, a fundamental alteration in wealth formation that is enabled by major scientific and technological advances such as the Internet.

Common governmental form using the separation of powers between the executive, legislative, and judicial branches and affording the executive substantial influence on the operation of government (e.g., state governments and governors, city governments and mayors).

Financial assistance granted by the government to certain persons or groups whose actions are regarded as being in the public interest (e.g., payments made to farmers to maintain a healthy agricultural sectors, tax benefits to reduce the price of energy from renewable sources such as solar or wind power, etc.).

A preliminary election where voters nominate candidates for office to run in general elections.

Period during the late 19th and early 20th century that sought to mediate changes brought on by the industrial revolution through economic, political, social, and moral reform. Major figures include Pres. Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson.

A political and social term that refers to ideologies and movements favoring or advocating progress, changes, improvement, or reform toward greater social justice understood as enhanced equity (e.g., the progressive income tax whereby the underprivileged pay less in taxes and the well-to-do pay more).

Legislative seats are proportionally distributed based on the percentage of the vote a particular party wins within a legislative district – as opposed to a “winner takes all” system in which a majority vote elects a single representative.

Form of political activism wherein contemporary grassroots citizen organizations and social movements initiate activities such as demonstrations and boycotts to assert political influence.

Politically engaged groups which promote issues of universal public concern (e.g., environmental protection, human rights, consumer protection, public health).

Relapse into a previous condition or mode of unfavorable behavior (e.g., a felon who has served their sentence and then reoffends).

The process of collecting and reprocessing materials that would otherwise be thrown away as trash and turning them into new products. It involves a series of steps to convert waste into reusable material, including collection, sorting, cleaning, and reprocessing.  The goal of recycling is to reduce consumption of raw materials, decrease energy usage, reduce pollution and greenhouse gas emissions, conserve space in landfills, and preserve natural resources.  It is a key component of waste reduction and is considered an important aspect of sustainability and environmental protection efforts.

Colloquial term referring to the often-complex forms and laborious procedures required to gain bureaucratic approval for a particular action, often seen as overly complicated and unnecessary by the parties affected.

A specific legislative measure (usually a statute) put to the voters by the legislature for approval or disapproval. A method for lawmakers to use the public ballot to enact a new law rather than deciding the issue themselves (e.g., some states have legalized marijuana for medicinal and/or recreational use via the referendum process).

Within this system of government there is a separation of powers, divided up by executive, legislative and judicial powers; additionally, governmental responsibilities can be centralized at one level of government, or they may be decentralized among multiple layers.

Based on the 10th Amendment, a provision of the U.S. Constitution which holds that all governmental powers not explicitly granted to the national government in the constitution are reserved to the states and their people.

Refers to the ability of rural areas to sustain an economy that supports its residents and maintains a high quality of life. It encompasses the health and stability of the economic activities within these communities, such as agriculture, forestry, and tourism, ensuring they are profitable and resilient.

A temporary legislative committee established for a limited period of time, and for a single legislative purpose.

The most common electoral system in the United States used to elect House members and many state and local officials; each district votes on one person to represent them in a legislative body.

Local government entity which carries out a specific function such as education, the provision of utilities, the irrigation of farmlands, or the provision of local transportation services, for example.

A theory for urban growth and planning that attempts to concentrate growth in the center of a city, thereby avoiding urban sprawl.

The values and norms held by citizens that reflect trust in others, the active pursuit of engagement in networks of interpersonal relations of a wide variety, and features trust-based standards of interchange among people involving the principles of reciprocity (return a favor with a favor) and mutual respect.

Group action characterized by focus on a specific political or social issue by individuals who share a common outlook on society and organized to cause social change.

Includes government programs that support low-income Americans and retired persons.

Relates to the ways in which people interact with one another, publicly and privately, and rests on the belief that others are acting with honesty, integrity, and reliability in their relationships with others.

Independent, local government entities created to perform specific functions or provide specialized services that are not covered by general-purpose local governments, such as cities or counties. These districts are established to address particular community needs, such as fire protection, water supply, sanitation, public transportation, parks, libraries, and schools. Special purpose districts have their own governing bodies, funding mechanisms, and the authority to levy taxes or fees to finance their operations.

A permanent committee established in a legislature, usually focusing on a single area of public policy.

State Children’s Insurance Program (S-CHIP): a state program, cooperatively managed at the state and federal level, intended to meet the health care needs of uninsured middle- and low-income children.

Laws or regulations enacted by a local government authority, such as a city council or county board, to govern matters within its specific locality. Ordinances typically address issues like zoning, public safety, health regulations, and local services, and they apply only within the geographical boundaries of the local government that enacted them.

A form of local government consisting of both an elected executive branch and a legislative branch, where one of the most significant powers afforded the mayor is that of budget director.

A provision in a federal or state statute that terminates or repeals all portions of the law after a specific date, unless further legislative action is taken to extend it.

Formerly known as the Food Stamp Program, this is a federal aid program administered by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) that provides financial assistance to low-income individuals and families for purchasing food. SNAP aims to alleviate hunger and improve nutrition by supplementing the food budgets of eligible households. Benefits are distributed through an Electronic Benefit Transfer (EBT) card, which can be used to buy food at authorized retailers. Eligibility for SNAP benefits is based on household income, resources, and certain non-financial criteria. By ensuring access to nutritious food, SNAP supports the health and well-being of millions of Americans and serves as a critical safety net during times of economic hardship.

The clause establishing the Constitution, Federal Statutes, and U.S. treaties as the supreme law of the land, mandating that state judges uphold them, even if state laws or constitutions conflict.

The meeting of social, economic, institutional, and environmental needs of a community without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

Community-based provision for the needs of elderly residents that seeks to maintain a community’s retired population by providing for them within the community.

A temporary group formed to work on a special, defined task or activity.

Limits on the amount of revenue that can be collected without the excess having to be refunded to taxpayers.

A major tax reform law signed by President Trump that reduced individual and corporate tax rates, doubled the standard deduction, limited state and local tax deductions, and shifted the U.S. to a territorial tax system. It aimed to stimulate economic growth but faced criticism for benefiting higher-income individuals and increasing the federal deficit.

Formerly known as welfare, TANF provides cash assistance to families with dependent children.

Formerly known as welfare, TANF provides cash assistance to families with dependent children.

A status of permanent employment granted after a probational period of trial service; tenured persons can only be dismissed for cause (e.g., malfeasance, incompetence) proven before an independent hearing board) or economic exigency.

In many states, constitutional or statutory controls have been set on the number of terms – consecutive or otherwise – which a legislator is allowed to serve.

State statute requiring a mandatory and extended sentence for persons convicted of serious offenses three or more times.

An accord reached in November 1998 between the four largest U.S. tobacco companies and the attorneys general of 46 states. This settlement resolved lawsuits in which the states sought to recover costs associated with treating smoking-related illnesses. Under the MSA, the tobacco companies agreed to pay the states an estimated $206 billion over 25 years and to make significant changes in their marketing practices, including restrictions on advertising and promotion aimed at youth. The agreement also established funding for anti-smoking campaigns and public health programs.

School of thought that accepts government as an actor with a positive role in the community, but limits that role to securing the continued maintenance of the existing social order; in this system, political competition is typically expressed through factions, an extension of the personalized politics characteristic of a system where status quo elites are able to maintain their influence.

The courts in which most civil or criminal cases begin and either bench or jury trials are involved in formulating the facts and applicable law in a case. All cases appealed to high courts work from this record of facts and law. Appellate courts can, sometimes, order a re-trial if the court of original jurisdiction was found to be in serious error.

Refers to the political ideology and style associated with Donald Trump, characterized by its nationalistic approach to policies, emphasis on hardline immigration stances, skepticism of multinational alliances and trade agreements, populist overtones, and an unconventional, often confrontational communication style. This term also encapsulates the strong loyalty of his supporters and the movement within the Republican Party that aligns with Trump’s leadership and agenda.

Refers to a government in which the same two political parties are nearly always elected to dominate the political process and where one party will hold the majority in the legislature (the ruling party) and the other will serve as “the loyal opposition” in legislative proceedings.

Seizure of private property by government in violation of the 5th amendment to the U.S. Constitution which holds the no man shall “be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation.”

Requirement imposed by Congress on state or local governments with no funding to pay for it (e.g., some federal workplace safety regulations under the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA).

Refer to governmental or political structures where power and decision-making are concentrated within a single, cohesive framework, often under one central authority or party. In such systems, there is a high degree of coordination and alignment across various branches of government, allowing for consistent policies and streamlined governance. Unified systems can manifest in different forms, such as a single-party system where one political party controls both the executive and legislative branches, or a unitary state where all regional or local governments operate under the direct control of the central government.

A set of 17 global objectives established in 2015 as part of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. The SDGs aim to address a wide range of global challenges, including poverty, inequality, climate change, environmental degradation, peace, and justice. Each goal is interconnected and designed to balance social, economic, and environmental sustainability, fostering inclusive development that benefits all people and protects the planet.

Refers to the economic, cultural, social, and political differences that are often found between urban and rural areas. This divide can manifest in varying levels of access to services such as healthcare and education, different economic opportunities, disparities in infrastructure, and distinct political and social attitudes. Urban areas typically feature higher income employment and more amenities while rural areas may offer a closer-knit community and a stronger connection to natural environments. Urban areas may lean towards progressive views and rural areas may hold more traditional perspectives. This divide can influence policy-making and electoral outcomes, as well as the distribution of resources and investments by governments.

Fee charged for a public service or use of a public facility (e.g., fishing license, camping spot reservation, state park entrance pass, etc.).

Refers to the shift or transformation in the fundamental beliefs, attitudes, or priorities of individuals, groups, or societies over time. These changes can be influenced by various factors such as cultural evolution, social movements, technological advancements, economic conditions, or significant political events.

All forms of remote learning that allow students to engage with educational content outside of a traditional classroom setting. Virtual education takes place primarily online through digital platforms, enabling students to access materials and interact with instructors and peers regardless of their location. Distance education also allows for learning at a distance, utilizing various technologies like online platforms, correspondence, or video conferencing to connect students and instructors. Asynchronous learning, a subset of these methods, enables students to access and complete coursework on their own schedules without the need for real-time interaction, providing flexibility for learners with different time constraints.

The option within the educational system for parents to receive a predetermined amount of money (depending on the state) to cover student tuition at a private school of choice. Often enacted where a substantial proportion of the public wishes to have a “choice” in where their school-age children attend elementary and secondary school.

Initiatives designed to reduce water usage, promote the efficient use of water resources, and encourage responsible water management practices among individual households, businesses, and government entities.  These programs can encompass a variety of strategies, such as public education campaigns, restrictions on water use during drought conditions, incentives for water-saving appliances and fixtures, rebate programs for landscaping with drought-resistant plants, and the development of new technologies for water conservation in industrial processes.  They aims of such programs are to address the challenges of water scarcity, maintain water supply for essential uses, protect the environment, and ensure sustainable water management for future generations.

Form of local government where the mayoralty is principally a ceremonial position; executive leadership is carried out as a cooperative effort on the part of the entire city council, which collectively decides and approves appointments; the budget is a collegial endeavor, and the mayor is just one of the council members involved in the budgeting process.

Public assistance as focused less on the individual recipient of the benefit than it is the community as a whole and requiring work in exchange for temporary relief; a limit of two years to be used before parents would be working or in job training; additionally, no recipient could have more than five years of assistance cumulatively.

Federal social program instituted in 2004 seeking to encourage those on public assistance to return to work rather than depend on income support. The states could assess federal funds to the extent state assistance programs were aligned with federal policy.

Holistic building design with the building’s purpose, workforce, future, and operations and maintenance costs taken as a comprehensive whole. Concept applied to major capital expenditures for public facilities and for some major private sector buildings.

Refer to a set of beliefs centered around awareness and activism on social justice issues, particularly those related to race, gender, and sexuality. The term "woke" has evolved from African American Vernacular English, signifying an alertness to social inequalities and injustices. Proponents of woke ideologies typically advocate for inclusivity, equity, and systemic reforms to address historical and ongoing discrimination.

Landscaping designed to maximize water efficiency; xeriscape practices include: planning for limited practical lawn areas, use of efficient irrigation systems, soil improvement, use of mulches, and use of native plants in landscape architecture.