The Social and Cultural Dimensions of Interpersonal Violence

Violence in general is defined as the deliberate use of force or authority to cause harm. The World Health Organization (WHO, 1996) describes violence as “the intentional use of physical force or power, threatened or actual, against oneself, another person, or against a group or community that either results in or has a high likelihood of resulting in injury, death, psychological harm, mal-development, or deprivation.” Thus, violence is interpersonal, which involves the intentional use of physical force or power against other persons by an individual or small group of individuals. The deployment and regulation of violence are social processes, and violence itself is socially patterned and embedded in inequalities in institutions and regimes (Walby, 2009, 2012).

Hence, interpersonal violence seems to be socially, culturally, and historically a phenomenon that in one way or another reflects social conditions, attitudes, conceptions, and changes, and that is manifested in human interactions. These social, historical, and cultural dimensions of violence give interpersonal violence its meaning and power (Marita Husso et al., 2017). Interpersonal violence is a global social and health problem in higher- and lower-income countries alike (Hearn, 2013; Ray, 2011). It is a complex and multidimensional phenomenon that involves violation, suffering, trauma, and loss. Interpersonal violence may be physical, sexual, or psychological (also called emotional violence), and it may involve deprivation and neglect. Interpersonal violence has many names. Some of these, such as child abuse, refer to the age of the victim and perpetrator. Some refer to behavioral criteria; that is, to specific acts such as rape, stalking, or genital mutilation; whereas others reflect attempts to capture broad concepts, such as intimate partner violence and violence against women. Interpersonal violence has also been categorized into two specific forms: family/partner violence and community violence, where each is further classified by the type of target (Krug et al., 2002).

• Family or partner violence refers to violence within the family or between intimate partners (of all gender identities and sexual orientations) occurring between residences within one single location. It includes child maltreatment, dating and intimate partner violence (IPV), and elder maltreatment.
• Community violence occurs among individuals who are not related by family ties but who may know each other. It includes youth violence, bullying, assault, rape or sexual assault by acquaintances or strangers, and violence that occurs in institutional settings such as schools, workplaces, and prisons. Community violence may be perpetrated on women, girls, and LGBTQIA+ people by people of any gender identity or sexual orientation; but is most often done by men.

Interpersonal violence encompasses a spectrum of harmful behaviors occurring between individuals, spanning physical, sexual, emotional, and psychological realms. Thus, interpersonal violence happening both at home and in the community can manifest in multiple ways, including physical, sexual, emotional, psychological, verbal, financial, legal, medical coercion, and technological forms, such as digital stalking. These forms of violence can occur in many settings, including families, communities, schools, workplaces, and online spaces. Each type can have severe physical, emotional, and social consequences, necessitating different interventions and support services.

The National Child Traumatic Stress Network (n.d.) states that “community violence is exposure to intentional acts of interpersonal violence committed in public areas by individuals who are not intimately related to the victim.” Common types of community violence that affect youth include individual and group conflicts (e.g., bullying, fights among gangs and other groups, shootings in public areas such as schools and communities, civil wars in foreign countries or “war-like” conditions in US cities, and spontaneous or terrorist attacks). Although people can anticipate some types of traumatic events, community violence can also happen suddenly and without warning. Consequently, youth and families who live with community violence often have heightened fears that harm could come at any time; they experience the world as unsafe and terrifying. In addition, although some types of trauma are accidental, community violence is an intentional attempt to hurt one or more people; and includes homicides, sexual assaults, robberies, and weapons attacks (e.g., bats, knives, guns).

The Cycle of Interpersonal Violence

Interpersonal violence often follows a cyclical pattern or progression, which can be divided into various stages. Developed by psychologist Lenore Walker and detailed in her book The Battered Woman, published in 1979, the cycle of violence serves as a tool to clarify the cyclical nature of battering and its impact on victims. This model aids in understanding abusive relationships and sheds light on why individuals may stay in such relationships despite experiencing abuse, as well as why abusers exhibit dramatic changes in behavior.

The typical stages of interpersonal violence involve a cyclical pattern that includes tension-building, incident of acute violence, reconciliation or “honeymoon,” calming or tension-reduction, and escalation phases. Here’s a breakdown of each stage:

1. Tension-Building Phase: This phase is characterized by increasing tension and stress within the relationship. Communication may deteriorate, and minor conflicts may arise more frequently. The perpetrator may become more controlling or irritable, while the victim(s) may attempt to placate the perpetrator to prevent escalation (Gondolf & Fisher, 1988).
2. Incident or Acute Phase: This is when the actual violent incident occurs, which can involve physical, sexual, emotional, or psychological abuse directed towards the victim(s). The violence may be sudden and intense, or escalate gradually over time. The perpetrator may exhibit a loss of control and may justify their actions or blame the victim(s) (Walker, 1979).
3. Reconciliation or Honeymoon Phase: After the violent incident, there may be a period of calm and remorse. The perpetrator may apologize, show affection, or promise to change their behavior. The victim(s) may feel relief or hope that the violence will not recur (Walker, 1979).
4. Calming or Tension-Reduction Phase: During this phase, both the victim and perpetrator may attempt to minimize the impact of the violence and restore normalcy. The relationship may temporarily stabilize, and tension may decrease. However, underlying issues remain unresolved, setting the stage for future violence (Gondolf & Fisher, 1988).
5. Escalation: If underlying issues are not addressed, the cycle of violence may escalate, leading to more frequent and severe incidents. The tension-building phase may become shorter, and the violence may become more intense, perpetuating the cycle (Gondolf & Fisher, 1988).

It is important to note that these stages of interpersonal violence do not necessarily occur in a linear order, and their severity and duration can vary depending on the circumstances. While many survivors of violence can identify with this cycle, it is important to recognize that each person’s experience with violence is unique, and the duration of each phase can range from moments to years. Over time, the cycle may speed up, and certain stages, such as the joyful phase, may be bypassed. Leaving an abusive relationship can be extremely difficult and dangerous in some situations, highlighting the significance of planning.

Interpersonal Violence Against Women, Girls, and LGBTQIA+ People

Interpersonal violence against women, girls, and LGBTQIA+ people manifests in different forms. These include domestic violence or intimate partner violence; non-partner sexual violence; non-partner violence of other types; sexual exploitation and trafficking; harmful practices such as female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C); and child, early, and forced marriage.

Domestic Violence or Intimate Partner Violence (IPV)

According to the UN, domestic abuse, also called “domestic violence” or “intimate partner violence,” can be defined as a pattern of behavior in any relationship that is used to gain or maintain power and control over an intimate partner. Abuse can consist of physical, sexual, emotional, economic, or psychological actions or threats of actions that influence another person. This includes any behaviors that frighten, intimidate, terrorize, manipulate, hurt, humiliate, blame, injure, or wound someone. Domestic violence can happen to anyone of any race, age, sexual orientation, religion, class, or gender. It can occur within a range of relationships, including couples who are married, living together, or dating. Domestic violence affects people of all socioeconomic backgrounds and education levels. Anyone can be a victim of domestic violence, regardless of age, race, gender, sexual orientation, faith, or class. Victims of domestic abuse may also include a child or other relative, or any other household member.

Domestic violence is typically manifested as a pattern of abusive behavior toward an intimate partner in a dating or family relationship, where the abuser exerts power and control over the victim. WHO also emphasizes that abuse is a form of interpersonal violence, involving actions aimed at harming, intimidating, manipulating, or exploiting another individual. This behavior often stems from a desire to exert power and control, perpetuated through coercive and violent means.

The Power and Control Wheel, crafted by the Domestic Abuse Intervention Project in Duluth, MN, proves invaluable in comprehending the overarching pattern of abusive and violent behaviors employed by an abuser to establish and sustain control over their partner or any other household victim. Frequently, alongside one or more violent incidents, a range of these additional forms of abuse may occur. Although less overt, they firmly establish a pattern of intimidation and control within the relationship.

Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) Across Countries

The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) identifies four types of intimate partner violence (IPV): physical violence, sexual violence, stalking, and psychological aggression. IPV significantly impacts millions of individuals in the United States (and worldwide) annually. Data derived from the CDC’s National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey (NISVS) indicates the following:

• Approximately 41% of women and 26% of men have encountered contact sexual violence, physical violence, or stalking by an intimate partner during their lifetime and have reported experiencing related impacts
• Over 61 million women and 53 million men have been subjected to psychological aggression by an intimate partner over the course of their lifetime

According to Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW) (2019), 894 gay, bisexual, transgender, intersex, and queer men through ACON’s social media pages, examined intimate partner violence (IPV) experiences, attitudes, and bystander intervention. Nearly 62% reported experiencing physical, verbal, or emotional abuse in a relationship, with 26% facing abuse in the past year. Most of them disclosed their experiences to friends (35%), counselors (18%), or family (17%), while another 17% of the sufferers remained silent. Among 328 witnesses of IPV, 41% intervened verbally, 14% physically, and 13% sought help, whereas 13% did not intervene and 23% were uncertain about how to respond.

During the COVID-19 pandemic, domestic violence reports surged across the United States, escalating from 21% to 35% (Viero et al., 2020). The implementation of stay-at-home orders, aimed at curbing the spread of the virus, inadvertently contributed to heightened societal stressors. These stressors, compounded by the global pandemic, led to increased levels of illicit drug and alcohol use, job loss, and social isolation (Viero et al., 2020). Consequently, individuals faced elevated levels of stress, which often manifested as nonphysical forms of abuse, including psychological, emotional, economic, and technological abuse. Unfortunately, these instances frequently escalated into physical violence. Marginalized communities, particularly Black women and Latinas, were disproportionately affected by these circumstances (Machado et al., 2021).

In a recent study by Zhou et al. (2024), the global burden of self-harm and interpersonal violence, along with influencing factors, was comprehensively analyzed from 1990 to 2019 using data from the Global Burden of Disease Study. The study sheds light on the trends and factors influencing the burden of these forms of violence over the past three decades. Specifically, the authors explore the incidence rates, mortality, Disability-Adjusted Life Years (DALYs), and various risk factors associated with self-harm and interpersonal violence. Specific risk factors associated with self-harm included alcohol use, high temperature, and drug use; and alcohol use, intimate partner violence, and high temperature were linked to interpersonal violence. Interestingly, low temperature emerged as a common protective factor against both self-harm and interpersonal violence. This research provides valuable insights into understanding and addressing the complex dynamics of violence on a global scale.

Insights into the Effects of Intimate Partner Violence

Patra et al. (2018) identified several effects of intimate partner violence in their study, Intimate Partner Violence: Wounds are Deeper. These effects include serious or fatal injuries, hearing or vision loss, lasting physical damage, sexually transmitted infections (STIs), unwanted pregnancies; mental health conditions such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, anxiety, and substance use disorders; as well as physical health issues like heart problems, digestive difficulties, reproductive issues, nervous system conditions, and muscle and bone disorders. Additionally, intimate partner violence can lead to low self-esteem; feelings of being unwanted, powerless, hopeless, and ashamed; trust issues; difficulty with relationships; and engaging in risky behaviors. Such violence can also impede functioning at work or school. Domestic abuse, encompassing mental, physical, economic, and/or sexual forms, tends to escalate in frequency and severity and may result in serious physical injury or even death.

Polygyny and Spousal Violence

Polygamy refers to the practice of being married to multiple spouses simultaneously; including polygyny, where a man has multiple wives; and polyandry, where a woman has multiple husbands. Although widely prohibited globally, certain societies have historically and culturally accepted polygamous marriages.

Challenges and Controversies

There are many legal, social, and ethical challenges surrounding polygamy. These include:

• Criminalization versus personal law rights for Muslims
• Debate around Constitutional rights to religion versus gender equality
• Social evils like bride trafficking and child marriages arising from polygamy
• Opposition to reforms from religious conservatives

Although both polygyny (multiple female spouses) and polyandry (multiple male spouses) do occur, polyandry is quite rare and usually occurs only in very specific circumstances. Most polygamous marriages consist of one man and two or more women. Research suggests that polygamous (polygynous) marriages have negative implications for the psychological and social well-being of the women and children involved. Discriminatory behavior from husbands and unequal treatment among wives often lead to various mental health issues such as jealousy, diminished marital satisfaction, unhealthy competition, and a lack of trust. In certain countries like India, Iran, Iraq, Bangladesh, Algeria, Lebanon, Morocco, Jordan, and Kuwait, women have the option to include clauses prohibiting polygyny in marriage contracts. However, in Pakistan and Iran, only the consent of the first wife is required, which must be presented in court as evidence for marrying a second wife. Over time, societal acceptance of polygamy has increased, with women gradually adapting to the practice. The sharing of domestic responsibilities among co-wives has contributed to reducing possessiveness and fostering acceptance among partners (Naseer et al., 2021).

Legal Status of Polygamy Across Countries

In developed countries such as the USA, Canada, and across Europe; polygamy is unambiguously prohibited by law. Similarly, many developing nations like China, Sri Lanka, and Myanmar also do not permit polygamous marriages. However, in countries with predominant Muslim populations such as Pakistan, Bangladesh, Afghanistan, and Malaysia, polygyny (the practice of having multiple wives) is allowed for Muslim men under religious laws. India also permits polygamous marriages, particularly for Muslims. Furthermore, Sub-Saharan African nations often allow customary polygamous marriages, reflecting cultural traditions and practices.

Violence Against Children

Information from the World Health Organization (WHO, 2022) describes the various types of violence against children, emphasizing that it can happen both at home and in the community. The majority of violence against children falls into at least one of the six categories of interpersonal violence listed below, which occur at various phases of a child’s development. When aimed towards girls or boys because of their biological sex or gender identity, any of these sorts of abuse can be considered gender violence.

• Maltreatment (including violent punishment) includes physical, sexual, and psychological/emotional aggression, as well as neglect of infants, children, and adolescents by parents, carers, and other authority, most commonly at home but also in schools and orphanages.
• Bullying (includes cyberbullying) is defined as unwelcome aggressive behavior by another child or group of children who are not siblings or romantically involved with the victim. It entails recurrent physical, psychological, or social injury and is frequently perpetrated in schools and other gathering places for children, as well as online.
• Youth violence is concentrated among children and young adults aged 10 to 29 years, occurs most often in community settings between acquaintances and strangers, includes bullying and physical assault with or without weapons (such as guns and knives), and may involve gang violence.
• Intimate partner violence (or domestic violence) involves physical, sexual and/or emotional violence by an intimate partner or ex-partner. Although males can also be victims, intimate partner violence disproportionately affects females and LGBTQIA+ people. It commonly occurs against girls within child marriages and early/forced marriages. Among romantically involved but unmarried adolescents it is sometimes called “dating violence.”
• Sexual violence includes non-consensual completed or attempted sexual contact and acts of a sexual nature not involving contact (such as voyeurism or sexual harassment); acts of sexual trafficking committed against someone who is unable to consent or refuse; and online exploitation.
• Emotional or psychological violence includes restricting a child’s movements, denigration (“put-downs”), ridicule, threats and intimidation, discrimination, rejection, and other non-physical forms of hostile treatment.

Violence against children can be triggered by a variety of factors, such as parents who are young or have poor parenting skills, absence of social supports, economic challenges, and many others. Evans et al. (2014) described some of the potential risk factors in the family, community, society, parenthood, and childhood.

Impacts of Violence Against Children

WHO (2022) stated that violence against children has lifelong impacts on the health and well-being of children, families, communities, and nations. Violence against children can:

• Result in death. Homicide, which often involves weapons such as knives and firearms, is among the top four causes of death in adolescents, with boys comprising over 80% of victims and perpetrators.
• Lead to severe injuries. For every homicide, there are hundreds of (predominantly male) victims of youth violence who sustain injuries because of physical fighting and assault.
• Impair brain and nervous system development. Exposure to violence at an early age can impair brain development and damage other parts of the nervous system, as well as the endocrine, circulatory, musculoskeletal, reproductive, respiratory, and immune systems, with lifelong consequences. As such, violence against children can negatively affect cognitive development and result in educational and vocational underachievement.
• Result in negative coping and health risk behaviors. Children exposed to violence and other adversities are substantially more likely to smoke, misuse alcohol and drugs, and engage in high-risk sexual behavior. They also have higher rates of anxiety, depression, other mental health problems, and suicide.
• Lead to unintended pregnancies, induced abortions, gynecological problems, and sexually transmitted infections, including HIV.
• Contribute to a wide range of non-communicable diseases as children grow older. The increased risk for cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes, and other health conditions is largely due to the negative coping and health risk behaviors associated with violence.
• Impact opportunities and future generations. Children exposed to violence and other adversities are more likely to drop out of school, have difficulty finding and keeping a job; and are at heightened risk for later victimization and/or perpetration of interpersonal and self-directed violence, by which violence against children can affect the next generation.

Efforts Taken to Prevent and Respond to Violence Against Children

Efforts to prevent and respond to violence against children require a systematic approach that addresses risk and protective factors across different levels: individual, relationship, community, and society. Under the guidance of the World Health Organization (WHO), a consortium of 10 international agencies has developed an evidence-based technical package known as INSPIRE: Seven strategies for ending violence against children. This package is designed to assist countries and communities in achieving Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) Target 16.2, which focuses on ending violence against children (WHO, 2016b).

Each letter of the word “INSPIRE” represents one of the strategies, many of which have demonstrated preventive effects across various types of violence; and have additional benefits in areas such as mental health, education, and crime reduction. The seven strategies include:

1. Implementation and enforcement of laws, such as prohibiting violent discipline and restricting access to alcohol and firearms
2. Norms and values changes, including efforts to shift norms condoning the sexual abuse of girls or aggressive behavior among boys
3. Creating safe environments, which involves identifying and addressing local causes of violence in “hot spots” through interventions like problem-oriented policing
4. Providing parental and caregiver support, such as offering parent training to young, first-time parents
5. Income and economic strengthening, including initiatives like microfinance and gender equity training
6. Provision of response services, ensuring that children exposed to violence can access emergency care and receive appropriate psychosocial support
7. Education and life skills development, which involves ensuring that children attend school and providing them with life and social skills training

In May 2016, the World Health Assembly adopted a resolution endorsing the first-ever World Health Organization (WHO) Global Plan of Action on Strengthening the Role of the Health System within a National Multisectoral Response to Address Interpersonal Violence; particularly against women and girls, and against children. According to this plan, WHO (2016), in collaboration with Member States and other partners, is committed to:

• Monitoring the global magnitude and characteristics of violence against children, and supporting countries’ efforts to document and measure such violence
• Maintaining an electronic information system that synthesizes scientific data on the burden, risk factors, and consequences of violence against children, as well as evidence for its preventability
• Developing and disseminating evidence-based technical guidance documents, norms, and standards for preventing and responding to violence against children
• Regularly publishing global status reports on country efforts to address violence against children; encompassing national policies, action plans, laws, prevention programs, and response services
• Supporting countries and partners in implementing evidence-based prevention and response strategies, including those outlined in INSPIRE
• Collaborating with international agencies and organizations to reduce and eliminate violence against children globally; through initiatives such as the Global Partnership to End Violence against Children, Together for Girls, and the Violence Prevention Alliance.

Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)

According to the World Health Organization (WHO, 2020), FGM encompasses “all procedures that involve partial or total removal of the external female genitalia, or other injury to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons.” This dangerous practice has no health benefits for girls and women and can result in serious consequences, such as heavy bleeding, urinary troubles, cysts, infections, birthing complications, and an increased chance of neonatal death. FGM is widely recognized as a violation of girls’ and women’s human rights, highlighting deep-seated gender inequality and being an extreme form of discrimination against females. It is typically performed on adolescents by traditional practitioners, and represents a violation of their rights. Furthermore, FGM breaches individuals’ rights to health, safety, and bodily integrity; as well as their entitlement to freedom from torture and cruel, inhumane, or degrading treatment. In cases where the procedure results in death, it infringes upon the right to life.

In its 2024 statistical report, UNICEF stated that FGM is recognized as a violation of girls’ and women’s human rights. It has affected over 230 million individuals worldwide. The majority, with over 144 million cases, are found in Africa; followed by over 80 million in Asia; and an additional six million in the Middle East. Additionally, one to two million are impacted in smaller practicing communities and migration destination countries across the globe. A recent report by the Orchid Project (2023) provides a clear picture of how common female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C) is in Ethiopia. 65.2% of Ethiopian women between the ages of 15 and 49 have undergone the practice. Data from the Demographic and Health Surveys emphasize the need for focused efforts to challenge this deeply embedded practice. 65% of FGM/C practices in Ethiopia involve nicking or cutting the genitals, and 35% involve a cut that removes a small amount of flesh. Both types of cutting endanger girls’ and women’s health and wellbeing.

The WHO has classified FGM into four different types:

1. Clitoridectomy. Partial or total removal of the clitoral glans (the external and visible part of the clitoris) and/or the prepuce/clitoral hood (the fold of skin surrounding the clitoral glans).
2. Excision. Partial or total removal of the clitoral glans and the labia minora (the inner folds of the vulva), with or without removal of the labia majora (the outer folds of skin of the vulva).
3. Infibulation. This involves the narrowing of the vaginal opening through the creation of a covering seal. The seal is formed by cutting and repositioning the labia minora or labia majora, sometimes through stitching, with or without removal of the clitoral prepuce/clitoral hood and glans.
4. Other. Encompasses all other harmful procedures to the female genitalia for non-medical purposes, such as pricking, piercing, incising, scraping, and cauterizing the genital area.

FGM is often performed in particular social groups by traditional circumcisers or cutters with no medical training. In some nations, a medical practitioner may do this procedure. Anesthesia and antiseptics are rarely used, and FGM is frequently performed using knives, scissors, scalpels, bits of glass, or razor blades. FGM often happens against a girl’s will and without her consent. There are no health benefits to FGM, and it can cause serious harm. The health consequences of FGM (WHO, 2020) are:

• Death
• Severe pain and shock
• Broken limbs from being held down
• Injury to adjacent tissues
• Urine retention
• Increased risk of HIV and AIDS
• Uterine, vaginal, and pelvic infections
• Cysts and neuromas (tumors)
• Increased risk of fistula (an abnormal opening or tear between the vagina and the bladder or rectum)
• Complications in childbirth
• Depression and post-natal depression
• Psychosexual problems
• Pregnancy and childbirth issues
• Sexual dysfunction
• Difficulties in menstruation
• Trauma and flashbacks
• Infertility

Motivations Behind FGM

The reasons FGM is practiced today are a mix of cultural, religious, and social factors within families and communities. For example, in Guinea, FGM is practiced almost universally, with a national prevalence of 95 to 97% (INS & ICF, 2019). The main reasons given by Guineans to justify the practice are respect for the custom handed down by their ancestors, and controlling women’s sexuality before and during marriage to favor the marriageability of girls and preserve family honor (Barry, 2015, 2019). However, this very high FGM prevalence may not be an accurate reflection of the strength of this apparent attitude (Cislaghi & Heise, 2018), as more than a third (37%) of Guinean women (17% of women living in Conakry) are of the opinion that the FGM practice should end (Barry, 2019). In India (Nanda & Ramani, 2022) FGM is practiced by the Dawoodi Bohra, a sect of Shia Islam with one million members in India. Known as khatna, khafz, and khafd, the procedure is performed on six- or seven-year-old girls and involves the total or partial removal of the clitoral hood. The spiritual leader of the Dawoodi Bohra, Mufaddal Saifuddin, clarified that while “religious books, written over a thousand years ago, specify the requirements for both males and females as acts of religious purity,” the Bohras must “respect the law of the land” and refrain from carrying out Islamic female circumcision in countries where it is prohibited. Other Bohra sects, including the Sulemani Bohras and the Alavi Bohras, as well as some Sunni communities in Kerala, India, are reported as practicing FGM.

According to WHO (2020), the reasons for FGM include:

• Where FGM is a social convention, the social pressure to conform is a strong motivation to continue the practice
• FGM is often considered a necessary part of raising a girl properly and preparing her for marriage/adulthood
• FGM is often motivated by beliefs about what is considered proper sexual behavior
• FGM is associated with cultural ideals of femininity and modesty
• Although no religious scripts prescribe (require) the practices, practitioners often believe the practice has religious support. Religious leaders take varying positions with regard to FGM: some promote it, some consider it irrelevant, and others contribute to its elimination
• Local structures of power and authority can continue upholding the practice
• FGM is often considered a cultural tradition, which is often used as an argument for its continuation

A Holistic Approach to Combat Female Genital Mutilation

WHO has played a pivotal role in promoting a comprehensive health sector response to prevent FGM and provide care for affected persons. This involves developing guidance and resources for healthcare workers to address FGM, manage its complications, and support prevention efforts. Furthermore, WHO assists countries in adapting and implementing these resources to suit their specific contexts. Additionally, WHO contributes to the body of evidence aimed at enhancing understanding of FGM and identifying effective strategies to combat this harmful practice. In line with its commitment to addressing FGM, WHO has collaborated with partner organizations to devise a global strategy aimed at countering the medicalization of FGM (medicalization refers to categorizing a human condition—such as possessing normal female genitalia—as an issue or problem needing “treatment”). This strategy underscores the organization’s ongoing support to countries in implementing measures to combat FGM and safeguard the health and well-being of affected individuals.

The United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) estimates that over four million girls are at risk of FGM each year. It is predicted that by 2030, nearly one in three girls worldwide will be born in the 31 countries where FGM is most prevalent, putting 68 million girls at risk. If global efforts are not significantly scaled up, the number of girls and women undergoing FGM will be higher in 2030 than it is today (2025). Understanding the fact that global efforts have accelerated, progress is being made to eliminate FGM. The United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF, n.d.) and UNFPA jointly lead the world’s largest program. UNICEF also works with governments at the national and regional levels to support the development of policies focusing on outlawing and ending FGM. For girls at risk of FGM, as well as FGM survivors, UNICEF also provides access to medical and psychological care and supports health workers who provide such treatment.

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Viero, A., Barbara, G., Montisci, M., & Kustermann, K. (2020). An increasing risk of family violence during the Covid-19 pandemic: Strengthening community collaborations to save lives. Forensic Science International: Reports, 2, 100089. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fsir.2020.100089.

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Further Learning

Admin (n.d.) Polygamy and polygamous marriages in India: An in-depth look into practices and legal framework. Century Law Firm. Retrieved from https://www.centurylawfirm.in/blog/polygamy-and-polygamous-marriages-in-india-an-in-depth-look-into-practices-and-legal-framework/

Naseer, S., Farooq, S., & Malik, F. (November 2021). Causes and consequences of polygamy: An understanding of coping strategies by cowives in polygamous marriage. ASEAN Journal of Psychiatry, Vol. 22(9), November 2021: p, 1-10. causes-and-consequences-of-polygamy-an-understanding-of-coping-strategies-by-cowives-in-polygamous-marriage.pdf

National Child Traumatic Stress Network. The National Child Traumatic Stress Network |

National FGM Centre. (n.d.). Female genital mutilation. https://nationalfgmcentre.org.uk/fgm/

United Nations. (n.d.) What is domestic abuse? United Nations COVID-19 Response. What Is Domestic Abuse? | United Nations