How Do Climate Changes Relate to Gender Violence?

At first look, the connections between climate change and gender violence may not be clear. We may assume, for example, that an event like a flood or a cyclone (the word for hurricanes in the Southern hemisphere) would not incite people to violence against one another; and further, that climate change/extreme climate events affect everyone in a region equally. Why would women, girls, and LGBTQIA+ people be subject to violence more than cisgender, heterosexual men and boys during and after these events? However, this is exactly the case.

The National Organization for Women explains:

Climate change and natural disasters act as threat multipliers, escalating political, social, and economic tensions in fragile settings, leading to heightened pre-existing conditions and risk factors. While these conditions are harmful and detrimental to all populations affected, they disproportionately affect women, children, and other marginalized communities.

(Duggan, 2023; emphasis added)

The chapter will be shaped by several assumptions about climate change and gender violence:

1. Violence against women, girls, and LGBTQIA+ people is pervasive
2. Stressors such as extreme climate events and slow climate changes aggravate already-existing systems of oppression, including gender violence
3. Gender violence related to climate change/climate events affects women, girls, and other gender minorities differently based on their different markers of identity in addition to gender; including sexual orientation, race/ethnicity, age, class/caste, religious norms, location/geography, and other factors: the phenomenon of intersectionality

In other words, this chapter will demonstrate that climate change/extreme climate events do lead to increased violence; that this violence disproportionately affects women, girls, and LGBTQIA+ people; and that women’s experiences of violence can be very different from each other based on their particular markers of identity.

Climate Change Is Real—and It Differentially Affects Women, Girls, and LGBTQIA+ People

A related and fundamental concept to the assumptions listed in this section is that climate change is real.

“Weather-related disasters are becoming more frequent over time and more deadly, claiming nearly 30,000 lives annually” (Cutter, 2017). In spite of debates over whether climate change is “really a thing,” more than 90 percent of climate scientists agree that the warming has increased beyond “natural climate variability” (Rosen, 2021).

According to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), the primary symptoms of climate change include:

[g]lobal land and ocean temperature increases; rising sea levels; ice loss at Earth’s poles and in mountain glaciers; frequency and severity changes in extreme weather such as hurricanes, heatwaves, wildfires, droughts, floods, and precipitation; and cloud and vegetation cover changes.

(NASA, n.d.)

Globally, relatively slow climate changes (such as increases in ocean acidification, melting of permafrost) as well as extreme climate events (such as cyclones, floods, heat waves, and wildfires) put stressors on people that may include: displacing them; making clean water harder to get/polluting waterways; destroying their homes and farmland/crops/livestock; making fuel and food scarce; loss of sanitation/plumbing; interruptions in vital services such as health services and education; loss of electrical power; illness due to high temperatures and/or proliferation of pests and diseases; and more. Because women, girls, and other gender minorities are already disadvantaged compared to other groups, the inequalities they face during “normal” times are often made worse when stressful events such as the above occur.

Note: This author accepts the science behind the anthropogenic (human-caused) explanation of climate change. However, it is not necessary to accept that humans have caused climate change to see the connections between climate events and increases in violence against women, girls, and other historically marginalized groups.

Gender Violence Is Pervasive

The first assumption is that violence against women, girls, and LGBTQIA+ people is pervasive, both historically and globally. The World Health Organization has published an often-cited fact that about one in three women across the world have been subjected to physical or sexual violence at some point in their lives (WHO, 2024). Gender violence occurs in every country, in all climates, and at every level of development (Le Masson et al., 2019, p. 2).

Gender violence (GV) is embedded within hierarchical systems of power such as governments, religious institutions, social structures (including families and communities), corporations, science, education, media, and others. It is used as a “tool of control” (Castañeda Camey et al., 2020) to maintain these systems of differential value and power. Its methods range from almost invisible acts of exclusion all the way to murder.

Gender violence can affect every aspect of women’s lives, and takes many forms (UN Women, 2024), including:

• Verbal abuse
• Physical assault of all types
• Sexual harassment
• Rape/sexual assault
• Emotional abuse
• “Gaslighting” and other psychological manipulations
• Restrictions on reproductive rights and choices (including forced abortions)
• Early or forced marriage
• Selective infanticide
• Economic abuse (controlling household resources, the work conditions, or financial access of another)
• Educational abuses (denying someone access to schooling/training or indoctrination into negative or harmful beliefs about themselves or women in general)
• Female genital mutilation or “cutting”
• Trafficking for various purposes
• Femicide (murder of females)

Climate Change Aggravates Already-Existing Systems of Oppression, Including Gender Violence

The chapter’s second assumption is that stressors such as slow climate change and extreme climate events aggravate already-existing inequalities. When people are forced to choose whom to help or protect; or allocate scarce resources (such as food, water, shelter, medical attention, education, social services, etc.), marginalized groups tend to get prioritized last and treated worst.

“Disasters triggered by hydro-meteorological and climatological events disproportionately impact people who are marginalized” (Gartrell et al., 2020). In other words, since women, girls, and LGBTQIA+ people are treated unequally even during stable times; they are the most vulnerable to poorer treatment when crises arise. “Women’s unequal economic and social status relative to men before a disaster strikes determines the extent of their vulnerability to violence during and after a crisis” (True, 2013).

After a climate event, existing inequalities worsen; stressors such as food insecurity and loss of property, failure of law enforcement to investigate crimes, and exposure to high-risk environments such as refugee camps and shelters, also increase violence (Thurston et al., 2021). In fact, “climate change increases the likelihood of all types of violence, including rape, riots, and civil war” (Atkinson & Bruce, 2015).

However, the strongest evidence for the thought-provoking descriptor, “the violence of inequality” (Castañeda Camey et al., 2020), can be seen in the fact that “the bigger the disaster (as approximated by the number of deaths relative to population size), the larger the effect is on the observed gender gap in life expectancy” (Atkinson & Bruce., 2015, emphasis added).

Intersectionality Means Women’s Experiences of GV Are Different from Each Other

The third assumption is that the experiences of women, girls, and LGBTQIA+ people are shaped by intersectionality. Understanding intersectionality (the interactions between markers of identity and the external circumstances that affect people) will help understand the interrelationships between climate change/extreme climate events and the differing experiences of violence inflicted on women, girls, and other historically marginalized groups.

In the following section we will examine several case studies of gender violence against women, girls, and LBGTQ+ people. As you read, pay attention to the factors of identity such as race, religion, age, sexual orientation, gender identity, socioeconomic status or class; as well as location/geography and climate, that intersect to affect particular experiences of gender violence.

Intersectionality: Identities and Circumstances

As we have seen, women, girls, and LGBTQIA+ people are subjected to violence at greater rates than heterosexual, cisgender men; and this violence increases during and after climate changes/extreme climate events. At the same time, each individual may face very different experiences of gender violence depending on where they live, the culture of their community or religion, family structure, the access they have to vital resources and supports, the type of climate issue or crisis affecting them, etc. Below we will consider some examples of the varied experiences of increase in violence against women, girls, and LGBTQIA+ people during and after climate events.

Case Study: 1 Heatwaves and Femicide of Black Women in New Orleans

During the hottest months of each year in New Orleans, Louisiana, the number of femicides spikes compared to other months. Between April and June 2023, nine women were murdered by intimate partners with guns. All of these women were Black, and eight of the nine were mothers (Raj et al., 2023).

Black and poor communities in New Orleans are already disproportionately affected by systemic racism, easy access to guns, restricted access to abortion, and economic downturns (Raj et al., 2023). Researchers point out, however, that the increase in numbers of women who are murdered during the summer months cannot be explained without considering some additional factors.

Existing research shows that heat waves are often followed by increases in intimate partner violence, especially in lower socioeconomic areas, where residents have higher heat exposure due to the urban “heat dome” or “heat island” effect (where stagnant air makes cities hotter than surrounding rural areas) (Cohen, 2023), less access to air conditioning, and increased vulnerability to power outages.

Black women, especially mothers, may have to contend with an increased burden of care as children are out of school on summer break and people may be forced into close quarters indoors. Stressors such as increased costs, food/shelter insecurity, and increased controlling and aggressive behaviors by abusers; may increase the likelihood of intimate partner violence (Raj et al., 2023; Sawas et al., 2020).

Compounded with inadequate responses to heat waves (lack of relief response infrastructure, and limited access to medical treatment, cooling centers, and green spaces), it seems that “violence is not just disproportionately affecting those groups already disadvantaged by systemic racism and economic inequalities but also those disproportionately affected by climate crises” (Raj et al., 2023).

Case Study 2: Increase in Child Marriage Following Flooding and Cyclones in Bangladesh

“Child marriage,” the marriage of two people when one is below 18 years of age, is a human rights abuse (UNICEF, 2023). “Given that children cannot provide informed consent, all child marriages are considered to be a form of forced marriage where the children’s rights are violated and their health is put at risk” (Richards, 2020). Girls are married young six times more frequently than boys are (Siddiqi & Mann, n.d.). In 2018, worldwide 650 million females had been married before age 18 (UNICEF, 2018).

Child marriage is practiced in many parts of the world, primarily in areas where poverty is high and stressors are particularly impactful. “Girls affected by humanitarian crises such as conflicts, droughts, earthquakes and outbreaks, face the greatest risks of child marriage” (Bellizzi et al., 2021). Rates of child marriage increase during both slow climate changes and extreme events.

Bangladesh is highly vulnerable to climate change (Pope et al., 2022). In coastal areas, child marriage increased significantly in the 12 months following cyclones and floods, even though at one point it had been declining (Siddiqi & Mann, n.d.). In 2023, half of girls were married before their 18th birthday, and almost a quarter before age 15 (IRC, 2023). Reasons given for the increase included:

• Families have lost their homes and incomes
• Girls are seen as a “burden” (even though they shoulder much of the invisible work and serve as “capital” in the community before and after disasters) (Atkinson & Bruce, 2015; Pope et al., 2023)
• Schools are closed, or girls are pulled out in favor of educating boys
• Families are displaced, and fear the prevalence of sexual assault and subsequent loss of reputation in camps or shelters
• Families may have died, leaving young girls orphaned

Girls married young are subject to a host of health, economic, and life problems. Besides the trauma of being separated from their families, they are traumatized from sexual activity before maturity. “Child brides” often have complications related to early pregnancy, increased mortality rates for both young bride and fetus or baby, and mental health problems such as anxiety and depression. They are often targets of domestic violence, and experience intergenerational poverty from lack of education and economic opportunities. Not least, they are deprived of the joys and freedoms childhood can bring.

Case Study 3: Australian Bushfires and Increased Violence Against Women, Girls, and LGBTQIA+ People

In 2009, an unprecedented drought in Victoria, Australia combined with a 100°-plus heatwave and gale-force winds to ignite a series of catastrophic bushfires (a type of wildfire specific to scrubland). Intensely hot and tall flames consumed thousands of acres of bush, destroyed thousands of homes and infrastructure, and killed nearly 200 people. Investigations after the fires focused on the effectiveness of emergency preparedness, communications, disaster responses, and post-disaster recovery efforts (Stewart, 2025).

Many of these “mainstream” studies failed to include data specific to women, girls, and LGBTQIA+ people. Subsequent studies have shown that, in addition to the trauma caused by the fires themselves, these groups experienced significant additional traumas.

Rates of interpersonal violence against women increased by as much as five times among those with higher exposure to the fires. Women (as well as girls, LGBTQIA+ people, and other minoritized groups) may have been forced to remain housed with abusers, pushed into contact with them while trying to salvage their homes/belongings, or they may have been unable to avoid abusive ex-partners in community shelters. Men’s loss of employment or income, increased alcohol/substance abuse, plus rigid gender roles, further increased gender violence (Thurston et al., 2021). Lesbians and gay men reported harassment in their homes and in shelters, tenuous access to relief services specific to their needs (Dominey-Howes, 2022); and a particularly acute trauma at losing their homes, that were strongly associated with their sense of identity as marginalized persons (McKinnon et al., 2016).

Although the rates of gender violence increased, reporting of violence after the bushfires actually decreased. Besides lack of access to support services, survivors faced family and community pressures not to report (so abusers wouldn’t “look bad”); fear that perpetrators still had access to them; and police, legal advisors, and healthcare providers who minimized or dismissed their reports (Parkinson, 2019).

Lack of knowledge and concern about interpersonal violence before the disaster, combined with a reduced response capacity, led to these issues not being priorities for responding agencies—and to be neglected in post-disaster recovery efforts (Parkinson, 2019), silencing survivors of gender violence related to the wildfires.

Case Study 4: Droughts, Heat Waves, and Floods Affect Women, Girls, and Transgender People in Pakistan

Pakistan currently faces serious political, economic, social, and climate change issues. Pakistan’s economy depends on water-based agriculture, in a water-stressed region where droughts, heat waves, and floods are intensifying. Corporations grab land for luxury developments and emissions-intensive big agriculture and production facilities (Sawas et al., 2020), displacing residents. The rural population is migrating into cities, straining water supplies and sanitation. Urban planning is focused on the rich; reduced infrastructure creates special hardships for women and the poor.

Pakistan is also one of the most gender inequitable societies in the world. A patriarchal culture, with binary views of sexual identity and rigid gender roles, excludes women from positions of power and punishes them for speaking up (Sawas et al., 2020). The rate of domestic violence is 34% among married women. Child marriage is also practiced, with some girls married before age 15 (UNFPA, n.d.).

The experience of urban poverty and its related issues is highly gendered (Sawas et al., 2020). The urban environment subjects women to higher levels of social instability, depression, and an increased burden of care. Their challenges include responsibility for procuring clean water even when it is not available; greater exposure to the effects of overcrowding (because of limitations on their mobility); and illnesses from sewage, intense heat, and polluted air (Sawas et al., 2020). The combination of migrations, social disruption, poverty, and poor infrastructure increase violence, especially against poor women, men who are not stereotypically masculine, and transgender people.

Transgender people already face a high level of state and social condemnation, including violence. They may be forced to leave their family homes early in life, lack basic education such as literacy (Sawas et al., 2020), and face limited employment outside of sex work (Riaz, 2025). They may experience depression, anxiety, and other mental health issues more often than the average. In the wake of climate events, they may lose their already precarious living situations, community and social supports, and limited work options. They face increased violence in camps or shelters, and a lack of trained medical and mental health services specific to their needs (Riaz, 2025).

Resisting Gender Violence

Efforts to end gender violence related to climate change have some things in common. One of the most interesting is the idea that climate events and gender violence have a reciprocal relationship; that is, events such as heatwaves and cyclones increase violence against women and girls; and the prevalence of “everyday violence” against women and other gender minorities reduces the resilience of survivors of extreme climate events and other disasters (Le Masson et al., 2019; Rezwana & Pain, 2021). Fortunately, the reverse is also true: efforts that empower women and girls to resist gender violence also make them more resilient in the face of climate events. In addition, strategies that empower women, girls, and other minoritized groups tend to benefit their communities as a whole.

Resisting gender violence in the face of increasing climate changes/climate events may incorporate some or all of the following strategies. Note that, similar to the ways factors of identity intersect with each other, the elements listed below may also overlap and interact.

Involve the Groups Who Are Most Affected

A number of violence prevention and disaster preparedness programs have recognized the importance of involving the most affected people in the planning/prevention, response, and recovery phases of their operations. Many recommend including the perspectives of women and girls, the poorest, and the most marginalized, such as transgender people (Atkinson & Bruce, 2015; Sawas et al., 2020) as the way to make the biggest difference.

Suggestions include supporting women’s community organizations in building networks for managing social and material supports (such as, for example, storage facilities) specific to their communities’ needs (Le Masson, et al., 2019; Sawas et al., 2020). Also, since adolescent girls’ “goodwill and labor mediate daily and seasonal acute shortages; they are the go-to safety net for maintaining family and financial integrity” (Atkinson & Bruce, 2015), opportunities for them to share their knowledge and be involved in the work may be invaluable.

As the most impacted by both gender violence and climate events, women, girls, and LGBTQIA+ people can be empowered by access to specific resources, such as:

• Services to prevent and respond to GV, including referrals to medical and legal resources
• Financial assistance for issues related to GV
• Education about their legal rights and protections

Collaborate with Local Communities and Work Across Sectors

“Historically top-down disaster prevention programs without community participation have often failed to reach those most affected . . .” (Chia-Chi et al., 2022). More effective models involve collaborating with the members of affected communities. For example:

• Work with religious leaders to apply tenets of holy books to measures that protect the wellbeing of at-risk groups (Le Masson, et al., 2019)
• Use local data (disaggregated by gender), to demonstrate the differential harm of climate events to females, and the resulting negative consequences for the entire community (Sawas et al., 2020)

In general, it appears that adhering to “local socio-cultural context[s] are more impactful in changing attitudes and behavioural intentions for gender roles” (Sawas et al., 2020).

Le Masson et al. (2019) remind us that international humanitarian aid programs only work with displaced persons; therefore, ongoing development programs may benefit from incorporating some of their protection mechanisms (such as data collection and prevention activities).

Also, through media, their local bases, or traveling teams, disaster response and anti-violence programs can help disseminate information when governments take actions, such as:

• Passing or updating laws about domestic violence, human trafficking, etc.
• Increasing availability of support services for survivors of violence
• Enacting prevention initiatives specifically targeting men and boys (UN Women, n.d.)

By collaborating with each other and with governments, international organizations can be more efficient and effective at spreading their messages and creating protections across the board.

Prevent by Planning, Educating, and Building Resilience

In disaster mitigation and in anti-violence work, girls, women, and LGBTQIA+ people (and by extension, their communities) can develop skills and strategies before stressors increase that will bolster their resilience when stressors happen.

• Education:
  • Create ongoing, large-scale awareness of the consequences of violence against women and girls (Le Masson et al., 2019)
  • Provide girls, women, and LGBTQIA+ people with skills for paid work, managing money, running businesses, etc.
  • Emphasize to communities the connections between gender violence and climate events
  • Teach women, girls, and LGBTQIA+ people about sexual and reproductive health practices (Le Masson et al., 2019)
• Encourage the use of Climate Change Gender Action Plans (ccGAPs). These are national development and climate change policies/strategies that have identified gender-specific issues in each development sector (IUCN, n.d.)
• Develop climate-resilient (sustainable) growth and development strategies that prioritize alternative (“green”) livelihood options for the poorest and most marginalized (Sawas, et al., 2020), including women, girls, LGBTQIA+ people, and people with disabilities

Empower the Ones Most Affected

Women, girls, LGBTQIA+ people, and other minoritized groups, “typically portrayed as being helpless victims of natural disasters” (Chia-Chi et al., 2022), could co-create reciprocal skills and abilities when provided with:

• Explicit equity policies (Le Masson, et al., 2019) incorporated into the planning, development, response, and recovery phases of disaster management programs
• Sexual and reproductive health and rights (SRHR) education and services (Siddiqi & Mann, n.d.; Le Masson et al., 2019), along with
• Medical and mental health services specific to their needs (including providers with appropriate training and experience) (Riaz, 2025)

Since adolescent girls are already both invaluable and invisible in their knowledge, labor, and embeddedness in their communities, leveraging their untapped potential could begin with making emergency responses both “protective of and specifically responsive to the most at-risk populations of adolescent girls” (Sawas et al., 2020; Atkinson & Bruce, 2015). Supporting their needs as well as encouraging their skills could include:

• Creating appropriate roles for them to participate in health promotion, human development, and climate mitigation activities
• Helping them obtain portable social and economic assets (since they are most prone to migrations), including social networking (e.g., through cell phones), identity documents under their control, and financial assets they can access from anywhere (Atkinson & Bruce, 2015)
• Developing targeted strategies, such as financing, vocational training, and life skills education (Siddiqi & Mann, n.d.)

When women, girls, and other minoritized groups have information, opportunities, and resources, their standards of living and those of their families tend to rise. These strategies will also provide women and girls some protections and increase their resilience to challenges. Equipping women and girls with stronger skills can lead to better outcomes in crisis situations as well as stable times. Focusing on females “may be one of the places where we can have the greatest effect on the future” (Atkinson & Bruce, 2015).

References

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Further Learning

CNN. (n.d.). Four reasons why women are more impacted by climate change. Four reasons why women are more impacted by climate change | CNN

CNN. (2023, November 30). How the climate crisis fuels gender inequality. CNN Special Report. How the climate crisis fuels gender inequality – CNN.com

Gender-Based Violence and Environment Linkages Center (GBV-ENV Center). Gender-Based Violence and Environment Linkages – IUCN

United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. (2018, 13 March). General recommendation No.37 (2018) on gender-related dimensions of disaster risk reduction in a changing climate. General recommendation No.37 (2018) on gender-related dimensions of disaster risk reduction in a changing climate | OHCHR