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Appendix C. Tables by Chapter

This section contains all the tables throughout the book in order of appearance. Please note that some chapters do not contain any tables and thus do not appear in the below sections.

Chapter 2

Table 2.1: Functional Groups Important in Human Physiology
Functional Group Structural Formula Importance
Hydroxyl —O—H Hydroxyl groups are polar. They are components of all four types of organic compounds discussed in this chapter. They are involved in dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis reactions.
Carboxyl O—C—OH Carboxyl groups are found within fatty acids, amino acids, and many other acids.
Amino —N—H2 Amino groups are found within amino acids, the building blocks of proteins.
Methyl —C—H3 Methyl groups are found within amino acids.
Phosphate —P—O42– Phosphate groups are found within phospholipids and nucleotides.

Chapter 4

Table 4.1: Categories of Connective Tissue
Connective tissue proper Supportive connective tissue Fluid connective tissue
Loose connective tissue:

  • Areolar
  • Adipose
  • Reticular
 Cartilage:

  • Hyaline
  • Fibrocartilage
  • Elastic
 Blood
Dense connective tissue:

  • Regular
  • Irregular
  • Elastic
 Bone:

  • Compact bone
  • Spongy bone
 Lymph
Table 4.2 Comparison of Structure and Properties of Muscle Tissue Types
Muscle type Structural elements Function Location
Skeletal Long cylindrical fiber, striated, many peripherally located nuclei Voluntary movement, produces heat, protects organs Attached to bones and around entry & exit sites of body (e.g., mouth, anus)
Cardiac Short, branched, striated, single central nucleus Contracts to pump blood Heart
Smooth Short, spindle-shaped, no evident striation, single nucleus in each fiber Involuntary movement, moves food, involuntary control of respiration, moves secretions, regulates flow of blood in arteries by contraction Walls of major organs and passageways

Chapter 6

Table 6.1: Bone Classification
Bone classification Features Function(s) Examples
Long Cylinder-like shape, longer than it is wide Movement, support Femur, tibia, fibula, metatarsals, humerus, ulna, radius, metacarpals, phalanges
Short Cube-like shape, approximately equal in length, width, and thickness Provide stability, support, while allowing for some motion Carpals, tarsals
Flat Thin and curved Points of attachment for muscles; protectors of internal organs Sternum, ribs, scapulae, cranial bones
Irregular Complex shape Protect internal organs, movement, support Vertebrae, facial bones
Sesamoid Small and round; embedded in tendons Protect tendons from excessive forces, allow effective muscle action Patellae
Table 6.2: Bone Markings
Marking Description Example
Articulations Where two bones meet Knee joint
Head Prominent rounded surface Head of femur
Facet Flat surface Vertebrae
Condyle Rounded surface Occipital condyles
Projections Raised markings Spinous process of the vertebrae
Protuberance Protruding Chin
Process Prominence feature Transverse process of vertebra
Spine Sharp process Ischial spine
Tubercle Small, rounded process Tubercle of humerus
Tuberosity Rough surface Deltoid tuberosity
Line Slight, elongated ridge Temporal lines of the parietal bones
Crest Ridge Iliac crest
Holes Holes and depressions Foramen (holes through which blood vessels can pass through)
Fossa Elongated basin Mandibular fossa
Fovea Small pit Fovea capitis on the head of the femur
Sulcus Groove Sigmoid sulcus of the temporal bones
Canal Passage in bone Auditory canal
Fissure Slit through bone Auricular fissure
Foramen Hole through bone Foramen magnum in the occipital bone
Meatus Opening into canal External auditory meatus
Sinus Air-filled space in bone Nasal sinus
Table 6.3: Bone Cells
Cell type Function Location
Osteogenic cells Develop into osteoblasts Endosteum, cellular layer of the periosteum
Osteoblasts Bone formation Endosteum, cellular layer of the periosteum, growing portions of bone
Osteocytes Maintain mineral concentration of matrix Entrapped in matrix
Osteoclasts Bone resorption Endosteum, cellular layer of the periosteum, at sites of old, injured, or unneeded bone
Table 6.4: Types of Fractures
Type of fracture Description
Transverse Occurs straight across the long axis of the bone
Oblique Occurs at an angle that is not 90 degrees
Spiral Bone segments are pulled apart as a result of a twisting motion
Comminuted Several breaks result in many small pieces between two large segments
Impacted One fragment is driven into the other, usually as a result of compression
Greenstick A partial fracture in which only one side of the bone is broken, often occurs in the young
Open (or compound) A fracture in which at least one end of the broken bone tears through the skin; carries a high risk of infection
Closed (or simple) A fracture in which the skin remains intact
Table 6.5: Nutrients and Bone Health
Nutrient Role in bone health
Calcium Needed to make calcium phosphate and calcium carbonate, which form the hydroxyapatite crystals that give bone its hardness
Vitamin D Needed for calcium absorption
Vitamin K Supports bone mineralization; may have synergistic effect with vitamin D
Magnesium Structural component of bone
Fluoride Structural component of bone
Omega-3 fatty acids Reduces inflammation that may interfere with osteoblast function
Table 6.6: Hormones That Affect the Skeletal System
Hormone Role
Growth hormone Increases length of long bones, enhances mineralization, and improves bone density
Thyroxine Stimulates bone growth and promotes synthesis of bone matrix
Sex hormones Promote osteoblastic activity and production of bone matrix; responsible for adolescent growth spurt; promote conversion of epiphyseal plate to epiphyseal line
Calcitriol Stimulates absorption of calcium and phosphate from digestive tract
Parathyroid hormone Stimulates osteoclast proliferation and resorption of bone by osteoclasts; promotes reabsorption of calcium by kidney tubules; indirectly increases calcium absorption by small intestine
Calcitonin Inhibits osteoclast activity and stimulates calcium uptake by bones

Chapter 8

Table 8.1: Overview of Differences between the Female and Male Pelvis
Characteristics Female pelvis Male pelvis
Pelvic weight Bones of the pelvis are lighter and thinner Bones of the pelvis are thicker and heavier
Pelvic inlet shape Pelvic inlet has a round or oval shape Pelvic inlet is heart-shaped
Lesser pelvic cavity shape Lesser pelvic cavity is shorter and wider Lesser pelvic cavity is longer and narrower
Subpubic angle Subpubic angle is greater than 80 degrees Subpubic angle is less than 70 degrees
Pelvic outlet shape Pelvic outlet is rounded and larger Pelvic outlet is smaller

Chapter 9

Table 9.1: Joint Classification
Functional Category Structural Category Subtype Description
Synarthrosis (immobile) Fibrous Suture A fibrous joint that connects the bones of the skull (except the mandible). The fibrous connective tissue found at a suture strongly unites the adjacent skull bones and helps to protect the brain and form the face.
Fibrous Gomphosis A narrow fibrous joint that anchors the root of a tooth into its bony socket within the maxillary bone (upper jaw) or mandible bone (lower jaw) of the skull.
Cartilaginous Synchondrosis A cartilaginous joint where bones are joined together by hyaline cartilage, or where bone is united to hyaline cartilage. A synchondrosis may be temporary or permanent.
Amphiarthrosis (slightly mobile) Fibrous Syndesmosis A fibrous joint in which two parallel bones are united to each other by fibrous connective tissue. The gap between the bones may be narrow, with the bones joined by ligaments, or the gap may be wide and filled by a broad sheet of connective tissue called an interosseous membrane.
Cartilaginous Symphysis A cartilaginous joint where the bones are joined by fibrocartilage. Fibrocartilage contains numerous bundles of thick collagen fibers, thus giving it a much greater ability to resist pulling and bending forces when compared with hyaline cartilage.
Diarthrosis (mobile) Synovial Pivot A pivot joint is where a rounded portion of a bone is enclosed within a ring formed partially by the articulation with another bone and partially by a ligament.
Hinge A hinge joint is where the convex end of one bone articulates with the concave end of the adjoining bone.
Condyloid A condyloid joint (ellipsoid joint) is where the shallow depression at the end of one bone articulates with a rounded structure from an adjacent bone or bones.
Saddle A saddle joint is where both of the articulating surfaces for the bones have a saddle shape, which is concave in one direction and convex in the other.
Plane A plane joint (gliding joint) is where the articulating surfaces of the bones are flat or slightly curved and of approximately the same size, which allows the bones to slide against each other.
Ball-and-socket A ball-and-socket joint is where the rounded head (the ball) of one bone fits into the concave articulation (the socket) of the adjacent bone.
Table 9.2: Movements of the Joints
Type of Joint Movement Example
Pivot Uniaxial joint; allows rotational movement Atlantoaxial joint (C1–C2 vertebrae articulation); proximal radioulnar joint
Hinge Uniaxial joint; allows flexion/extension movements Knee; elbow; ankle; interphalangeal joints of fingers and toes
Condyloid Biaxial joint; allows flexion/extension, abduction/adduction, and circumduction movements Metacarpophalangeal (knuckle) joints of fingers; radiocarpal joint of wrist; metatarsophalangeal joints for toes
Saddle Biaxial joint; allows flexion/extension, abduction/adduction, and circumduction movements First carpometacarpal joint of the thumb; sternoclavicular joint
Plane Multiaxial joint; allows inversion and eversion of foot, or flexion, extension, and lateral flexion of the vertebral column Intertarsal joints of foot; superior-inferior articular process articulations between vertebrae
Ball-and-socket Multiaxial joint; allows flexion/extension, abduction/adduction, circumduction, and medial/lateral rotation movements Shoulder and hip joints

Chapter 10

Table 10.1: Characteristics of Human Skeletal Muscle Fiber Types
Characteristic Fast Glycolytic Fast Oxidative Slow Oxidative
Other names Type IIx, Fast Twitch Type IIa, Fast Twitch Type I, Slow Twitch
Number of mitochondria Low High/moderate High
Resistance to fatigue Low High/moderate High
Predominant energy system Anaerobic Combination Aerobic
ATPase activity Highest/fastest High Low/slowest
Speed of shortening (Vmax) Highest High Low
Efficiency Low Moderate High
Strength (Specific tension) High High Moderate
Myoglobin Low Moderate High
Glycogen High Moderate Low

Chapter 11

Table 11.1: Understanding a Muscle Name from the Latin
Example Word Latin Root 1 Latin Root 2 Meaning Translation
abductor digiti minimi abductor ab = away from duct = to move a muscle that moves away from A muscle that moves the little finger or toe away
digiti digitus = digit n/a refers to a finger or toe
minimi minimus = mini, tiny n/a little
adductor digiti minimi adductor ad = to, toward duct = to move a muscle that moves towards A muscle that moves the little finger or toe forward
digiti digitus = digit n/a refers to a finger or toe
minimi minimus = mini, tiny n/a little
Table 11.2: Mnemonic Device for Latin Roots
Example Latin or Greek Translation Mnemonic Device
ad to; toward ADvance toward your goal
ab away from n/a
sub under SUBmarines move under water.
ductor something that moves A conDUCTOR makes a train move.
anti against If you are antisocial, you are against engaging in social activities.
epi on top of n/a
apo to the side of n/a
longissimus longest “Longissimus” is longer than the word “long.”
longus long long
brevis short brief
maximus large max
medius medium “Medius” and “medium” both begin with “med.”
minimus tiny; little mini
rectus straight To RECTify a situation is to straighten it out.
multi many If something is MULTIcolored, it has many colors.
uni one A UNIcorn has one horn.
bi/di two If a ring is DIcast, it is made of two metals.
tri three TRIple the amount of money is three times as much.
quad four QUADruplets are four children born at one birth.
externus outside EXternal
internus inside INternal
Table 11.3: Muscles in Facial Expression 
Part of the face Prime mover Movement Target Target motion direction Origin Insertion
Brow Occipitofrontalis, frontal belly Raising eyebrows (e.g., showing surprises) Skin of scalp Anterior Epicranial aponeurosis Underneath skin of forehead
Brow  Occipitofrontalis, occipital belly Tensing and retracting scalp Skin of scalp Posterior Occipital bone; mastoid process (temporal bone) Epicranial aponeurosis
Brow Corrugator supercilii Lowering eyebrows (e.g., scowling, frowning) Skin underneath eyebrows Inferior Frontal bone Skin underneath eyebrow
Nose Nasalis Flaring nostrils Nasal cartilage (pushes nostrils open when cartilage is compressed) Inferior compression; posterior compression Maxilla Nasal bone
Mouth Levator labii superioris Raising upper lip Upper lip Elevation Maxilla Underneath skin at corners of the mouth; orbicularis oris
Mouth Depressor labii inferioris Lowering lower lip Lower lip Depression Mandible Underneath skin of lower lip
Mouth Depressor anguli oris Opening mouth and sliding lower jaw left and right Lower jaw Depression, lateral Mandible Underneath skin at corners of mouth
Mouth Zygomaticus major Smiling Corners of mouth Lateral elevation Zygomatic bone Underneath skin at corners of mouth (dimple area); orbicularis oris
Mouth Orbicularis oris Shaping of lips (as during speech) Lips Multiple Tissue surrounding lips Underneath skin at corners of mouth
Mouth Buccinator Lateral movement of cheeks (e.g., sucking on a straw; also used to compress air in mouth while blowing) Cheeks Lateral Maxilla, mandible; sphenoid bone (via pterygomandibular raphe) Orbicularis oris
Mouth Risorius Pursing of lips by straightening them laterally Corners of mouth Lateral Fascia of parotid salivary gland Underneath skin at corners of mouth
Mouth Mentalis Protrusion of lower lip (e.g., pouting expression) Lower lip and skin of chin Protraction Mandible Underneath skin of chin
Table 11.4: Muscles of the Eyes
Prime mover Movement Target Target motion direction Origin Insertion
Superior rectus Moves eyes up and toward nose; rotates eyes from 1 o’clock to 3 o’clock Eyeballs Superior (elevates); medial (adducts) Common tendinous ring (ring attaches to optic foramen) Superior surface of eyeball
Inferior rectus Moves eyes down and toward nose; rotates eyes from 6 o’clock to 3 o’clock Eyeballs Inferior (depresses); medial (adducts) Common tendinous ring (ring attaches to optic foramen) Inferior surface of eyeball
Lateral rectus Moves eyes away from nose Eyeballs Lateral (abducts) Common tendinous ring (ring attaches to optic foramen) Lateral surface of eyeball
Medial rectus Moves eyes toward nose Eyeballs Medial (adducts) Common tendinous ring (ring attaches to optic foramen) Medial surface of eyeball
Inferior oblique Moves eyes up and away from nose; rotates eyeball from 12 o’clock to 9 o’clock Eyeballs Superior (elevates); lateral (abducts) Floor of orbit (maxilla) Surface of eyeball between inferior rectus and lateral rectus
Superior oblique Moves eyes down and away from nose; rotates eyeball from 6 o’clock to 9 o’clock Eyeballs Superior (elevates); lateral (abducts) Sphenoid bone Suface of eyeball between superior rectus and lateral rectus
Levator palpabrae superioris Opens eyes Upper eyelid Superior (elevates) Roof of orbit (sphenoid bone) Skin of upper eyelids
Orbicularis oculi Closes eyelids Eyelid skin Compression along superior–inferior axis Medial bones composing the orbit Circumference of orbit
Table 11.5: Muscles of the Lower Jaw
Prime mover Movement Target Target motion direction Origin Insertion
Masseter Closes mouth; aids chewing Mandible Superior (elevates) Maxilla arch; zygomatic arch (for masseter) Mandible
Temporalis Closes mouth; pulls lower jaw in under upper jaw Mandible Superior (elevates); posterior (retracts) Temporal bone Mandible
Lateral pterygoid Opens mouth; pushes lower jaw out under upper jaw; moves lower jaw side-to-side Mandible Inferior (depresses); posterior (protracts); lateral (abducts); medial (adducts) Pterygoid process of sphenoid bone Mandible
Medial pterygoid Closes mouth; pushes lower jaw out under upper jaw; moves lower jaw side-to-side Mandible Superior (elevates); posterior (protracts); lateral (abducts); medial (adducts) Sphenoid bone; maxilla Mandible; temporo-mandibular joint
Table 11.6a: Muscles for Tongue Movement
Muscle Origin Insertion Movement Innervation
Genioglossus Mandible Tongue undersurface; hyoid bone Draws tongue to one side; depresses midline of tongue or protrudes tongue Hypoglossal nerve
Styloglossus Temporal bone (styloid process) Tongue undersurface and sides Draws tongue upward and posteriorly Hypoglossal nerve
Hyoglossus Temporal bone (styloid bone) Sides of tongue Depresses tongue Hypoglossal nerve
Palatoglossus Soft palate Side of tongue Elevates root of tongue; closes oral cavity from pharynx Accessory and vagus nerves
Table 11.6b: Muscles for Swallowing and Speech
Muscle Origin Insertion Movement Innervation
Digastric Mandible; temporal bone Hyoid bone Depresses mandible when hyoid is fixed; elevates hyoid when mandible is fixed; Posterior belly; facial nerve Anterior belly mylohyoid nerve
Stylohyoid Temporal bone (styloid process) Hyoid bone Elevates and retracts hyoid; elongates floor of mouth Facial nerve
Mylohyoid Mandible Hyoid bone; median raphe Elevates floor of mouth in initial stage of swallowing Mylohyoid nerve
Geniohyoid Mandible Hyoid bone Depresses mandible when hyoid; elevates and protracts hyoid when mandible is fixed Spinal nerve C1 via hypoglossal nerve
Omohyoid Scapula Hyoid bone Depresses hyoid after it has been elevated Ansa cervicalis
Sternohyoid Clavicle Hyoid bone Depresses the hyoid during swallowing and speaking Ansa cervicalis
Thyrohyoid Thyroid cartilage Hyoid bone Depresses hyoid; Elevates larynx when hyoid is fixed Spinal nerve C1 via hypoglossal nerve
Sternothyroid Sternum Thyroid cartilage Depresses larynx after it has been elevated in swallowing and vocalization Ansa cervicalis
Sternocleid- omastoid; Sternum; clavicle Temporal bone (mastoid process); occipital bone Unilaterally tilts head up and to the opposite side; Bilaterally draws head forward and down Accessory nerve and spinal nerves C2-C3
Semispinalis capitis C5-C8; T1-T6 Occiput between the superior and inferior nuchal line Extends and rotates the head to the opposite side Posterior rami of middle cervical and thoracic nerves
Splenius capitis; Nuchal line; spinous process of C7-T3 Superior nuchal line, Mastoid process Unilaterally and ipsilaterally flexes and rotates the head; Bilaterally extends head Posterior rami of middle cervical nerves
Longissimus capitis T1-T5; C4-C7 Posterior margin of mastoid process and temporal bone Extends and hyperextends head; flexes and rotates the head ipsilaterally Dorsal rami of cervical and thoracic nerves (C6 to T4)
Table 11.7: Muscles That Move the Head
Prime mover Movement Target Target motion direction Origin Insertion
Sternocleidomastoid Rotates and tilts head to the side; tilts head forward Skull; vertebrae Individually: rotates head to opposite side; bilaterally: flexion Sternum; clavicle Temporal bone (mastoid process); occipital bone
Semispinalis capitis Rotates and tilts head backward Skull; vertebrae Individually: laterally flexes and rotates head to same side; bilaterally: extension Transverse and articular processes of cervical and thoracic vertebra Occipital bone
Splenius capitis Rotates and tilts head to the side; tilts head backward Skull; vertebrae Individually: laterally flexes and rotates head to same side; bilaterally: extension Spinous processes of cervical and thoracic vertebra Temporal bone (mastoid process); occipital bone
Longissimus capitis Rotates and tilts head to the side; tilts head backward Skull; vertebrae Individually: laterally flexes and rotates head to same side; bilaterally: extension Transverse and articular processes of cervical and thoracic vertebra Temporal bone (mastoid process)
Table 11.8: Muscles of the Abdomen
Prime mover Movement Target Target motion direction Origin Insertion
External obliques; internal obliques Twisting at waist; also bending to the side Vertebral column Supination; lateral flexion Ribs 5–12; ilium Ribs 7–10; linea alba; ilium
Transversus abdominus Squeezing abdomen during forceful exhalations, defecation, urination, and childbirth Abdominal cavity Compression Ilium; ribs 5–10 Sternum; linea alba; pubis
Rectus abdominis Sitting up Vertebral column Flexion Pubis Sternum; ribs 5 and 7
Quadratus lumborum Bending to the side Vertebral column Lateral flexion Ilium; ribs 5–10 Rib 12; vertebrae L1–L4
Table 11.9: Muscles of the Thorax
Prime mover Movement Target Target motion direction Origin Insertion
Diaphragm Inhalation; exhalation Thoracic cavity Compression; expansion Sternum; ribs 6–12; lumbar vertebrae Central tendon
External intercostals Inhalation;exhalation Ribs Elevation (expands thoracic cavity) Rib superior to each intercostal muscle Rib inferior to each intercostal muscle
Internal intercostals Forced exhalation Ribs Movement along superior/inferior axis to bring ribs closer together Rib inferior to each intercostal muscle Rib superior to each intercostal muscle
Table 11.10: Muscles of the Perineum Common to Men and Women
Muscle type Muscle Origin Insertion Action Innervation
Pelvic floor muscles Levator ani pubococcygeus; levator ani iliococcygeus Pubis; ischium Urethra; anal canal; perineal body; coccyx Compresses anal canal; defecation; urination; birth; coughing Pudendal nerve; Spinal nerves S2-S3
Superficial muscle Superficial transverse perineal Ischium Perineal body None- supports perineal body maintaining anus at center of perineum Pudendal nerve
Superficial muscle Bulbospongiosus Perineal body Perineal membrane; corpus spongiosum of penis; deep fascia of penis; clitoris in female Involuntary response that compresses urethra when excreting urine in both sexes or while ejaculating in males; also aids in erection of penis in males Pudendal nerve
Superficial muscle Ischiocavernosus Ischium; ischial rami; pubic rami Pubic symphysis; corpus cavernosum of penis in males; clitoris in females Compresses veins to maintain erection of penis in males; erection of clitoris in females Pudendal nerve
Deep muscle External urethral sphincter Ischial rami; pubic rami Male: median raphe; female: vaginal wall Voluntarily compresses urethra during urination Pudendal nerve spinal nerves S2-S4; pelvic splanchnic nerve
Deep muscle External anal sphincter Anoccoccygeal ligament Pernieal body Closes anus Pudendal nerve spinal nerves S2-S4; pelvic splanchnic nerve
Table 11.11: Muscles That Position the Pectoral Girdle
Prime mover Position in the thorax Movement Target Target motion direction Origin Insertion
Subclavius Anterior thorax Stabilizes clavicle during movement by depressing it Clavicle Depression First rib Inferior surface of clavicle
Pectoralis minor Anterior thorax Rotates shoulder anteriorly (throwing motion); assists with inhalation Scapula; ribs Scapula: depresses; ribs: elevates Anterior surfaces of certain ribs (2–4 or 3–5) Coracoid process of scapula
Serratus anterior Anterior thorax Moves arm from side of body to front of body; assists with inhalation Scapula; ribs Scapula: protracts; ribs: elevates Muscle slips from certain ribs (1–8 or 1–9) Anterior surface of vertebral border of scapula
Trapezius Posterior thorax Elevates shoulders (shrugging); pulls shoulder blades together; tilts head backwards Scapula; cervical spine Scapula: rotests inferiorly, retracts, elevates, and depresses; spine: extends Skull; vertebral column Acromion and spine of scapula; clavicle
Rhomboid major Posterior thorax Stabilizes scapula during pectoral girdle movement Scapula Retracts; rotates inferiorly Thoracic vertebrae (T2–T5) Medial border of scapula
Rhomboid minor Posterior thorax Stabilizes scapula during pectoral girdle movement Scapula Retracts; rotates inferiorly Cervical and thoracic vertebrae (C7 and T1) Medial border of scapula
Table 11.12a: Muscles That Move the Humerus
Prime mover Movement Target Target direction movement Origin Insertion
Pectoralis major Brings elbows together; moves elbow up (as during an uppercut punch) Humerus Flexion; adduction; medial rotation Clavicle sternum; cartilage of certain ribs (1-6 or 1-7) aponeurosis of external oblique muscle Greater tubercle of humerus
Latissimus dorsi Moves elbow back (as in elbowing someone standing behind you); spreads elbows apart Humerus; scapula Humerus: extension, adduction, and medial rotation; scapula: depression Thoracic vertebrae (T7-T12); lumbar vertebrae; lower ribs (9-12); iliac crest Intertubercular sulcus of humerus
Table 11.12b: Muscles That Move the Humerus
Prime mover Movement Target Target direction movement Origin Insertion
Deltoid Lifts arms at shoulder Humerus Abduction; flexion; extension; medial lateral rotation Trapezius; clavicle; acromion; spine of scapula Deltoid tuberosity of humerus
Subscapularis Assists pectoralis major in bringing elbows together and stabilizes shoulder joint during movement of the pectoral girdle Humerus Medial rotation Subscapular fossa of scapula Lesser tubercle of humerus
Supraspinatus Rotates elbow outwards, as during a tennis swing Humerus Abduction Supraspinous fossa of scapula Greater tubercle of humerus
Infraspinatus Rotates elbow outwards, as during a tennis swing Humerus Extension; adduction Infraspinous fossa of scapula Greater tubercle of humerus
Teres major Assists with medial rotation at the shoulder Humerus Extension; adduction Posterior surface of scapula Intertubercular sulcus of humerus
Teres minor Assists infraspinatus in rotating elbow outwards Humerus Extension; adduction Lateral border of dorsal scapular surface Greater tubercle of humerus
Coracobrachialis Moves elbow up and across body, as when putting hand on chest Humerus Flexion; adduction Coracoid process of scapula Medial surface of humerus shaft
Table 11.13: Muscles That Move the Forearm
Muscle Type Prime mover Movement Target Target motion direction Origin Insertion
Anterior muscles (flexion) Biceps brachii Performs a bicep curl; also allows palm of hand to point toward body while flexing Forearm Flexion; supination Coracoid process; tubercle above glenoid cavity Radial tuberosity
Anterior muscles (flexion) Brachialis Performs an elbow-bending motion  Forearm Flexion Front of distal humerus Coronoid process of ulna
Anterior muscles (flexion) Brachioradialis Assists and stabilizes elbow during bicep-curl motion  Forearm Flexion Lateral supracondylar ridge at distal end of humerus Base of styloid process of radius
Posterior muscles (extension) Triceps brachii Extends forearm, as during a punch  Forearm Extension Infraglenoid tubercle of scapula; posterior shaft of humerus; posterior humeral shaft distal to radial groove Olecranon process of ulna
Posterior muscles (extension) Anconeus Assists in extending forearm; also allows forearm to extend away from body  Forearm Extension; abduction Lateral epicondyle of humerus Lateral aspect of olecranon process of ulna
Anterior muscles (pronation) Pronator teres Turns hand palm-down  Forearm Pronation Medial epicondyle of humerus; coronoid process of ulna Lateral radius
Anterior muscles (pronation) Pronator quadratus Assists in turning hand palm-down  Forearm Pronation Distal portion of anterior ulnar shaft Distal surface of anterior radius
Posterior muscles (supination) Supinator Turns hand palm-up  Forearm Supination Lateral epicondyle of humerus; proximal ulna Proximal end of radius
Table 11.14a: Muscles of the Superficial Anterior Compartment of the Forearm
Prime mover Movement Target Target motion direction Origin Insertion
Flexor carpi radialis Bends wrist toward body; tilts hand to side away from body Wrist; hand Flexion; abduction Medial epicondyle of humerus Base of second and third metacarpals
Palmaris longus Assists in bending hand up toward shoulder Wrist Flexion Medial epicondyle of humerus Palmar aponeurosis; skin and fascia of palm
Flexor carpi ulnaris Assists in bending hand up toward shoulder; tilts hand to side away from body; stabilizes wrist Wrist; hand Flexion; abduction Medial epicondyle of humerus; olecranon process; posterior surface of ulna Pisiform, hamate bones, and base of fifth metacarpal
Flexor digitorum superficialis Bends fingers to make a fist Wrist; fingers 2-5 Flexion Medial epicondyle of humerus; coronoid process of ulna; shaft of radius Middle phalanges of fingers 2-5
Table 11.14b: Muscles of the Deep Anterior Compartment of the Forearm
Prime mover Movement Target Target motion direction Origin Insertion
Flexor pollicis longus Bends tip of thumb Thumb Flexion Anterior surface of radius; interosseous membrane Distal phalanx of thumb
Flexor digitorum profundus Bends fingers to make a fist; also bends wrist toward body Wrist; fingers Flexion Coronoid process; anteromedial surface of ulna; interosseous membrane Distal phalanges of fingers 2-5
Table 11.14c: Muscles of the Superficial Posterior Compartment of the Forearm
Prime mover Movement Target Target motion direction Origin Insertion
Extensor radialis longus Straightens wrist away from body; tilts hand to side away from body Wrist Extension; abduction Lateral supracondylar ridge of humerus Base of second metacarpal
Extensor carpi radialis brevis Assists extensor radialis longus in extending and abducting wrist; also stabilizes hand during finger flexion Wrist Extension; abduction Lateral epicondyle of humerus Base of third metacarpal
Extensor digitorum Opens fingers and moves them sideways away from the body Wrist; fingers Extension; abduction Lateral epicondyle of humerus Extensor expansions; distal phalanges of fingers
Extensor digit minimi Extends little finger Little finger Extension Lateral epicondyle of humerus Extensor expansion; distal phalanx of finger 5
Extensor carpi ulnaris Straightens wrist away from body; tilts hand to side toward body Wrist Extension; abduction Lateral epicondyle of humerus; posterior border of ulna Base of fifth metacarpal
Table 11.14d: Muscles of the Deep Posterior Compartment of the Forearm
Prime mover Movement Target Target motion direction Origin Insertion
Abductor pollicis longus Moves thumb sideways toward body; extends thumb moves hand sideways toward body Wrist; thumb Thumb: abduction, extension; wrist: abduction Posterior surface of radius and ulna; interosseous membrane Base of metacarpal; trapezium
Extensor pollicis brevis Extends thumb Thumb Extension Dorsal shaft of radius and ulna; interosseous membrane Base of proximal phalanx of thumb
Extensor pollicis longus Extends thumb Thumb Extension Dorsal shaft of radius and ulna; interosseous membrane Base of distal phalanx of thumb
Extensor indicis Extends index finger; straightens wrist away from body Wrist; index finger Extension Posterior surface of distal ulna; interosseous membrane Tendon of extensor digitorum of index finger
Table 11.15: Intrinsic Muscles of the Hand
Prime mover Muscle Movement Target Target motion direction Origin Insertion
Abductor pollicis brevis Thenar muscles Moves thumb toward body Thumb Abduction Flexor retinaculum; and nearby carpals Lateral base of proximal phalanx of thumb
Opponens pollicis Thenar muscles Moves thumb across palm to touch other fingers Thumb Opposition Flexor retinaculum; trapezium Anterior of first metacarpal
Flexor pollicis brevis Thenar muscles Flexes thumb Thumb Flexion Flexor retinaculum; trapezium Lateral base of proximal phalanx of thumb
Adductor pollicis Thenar muscles Moves thumb away from body Thumb Adduction Capitate bone; bases of metacarpals 2–4; front of metacarpal 3 Medial base of proximal phalanx of thumb
Abductor digiti minimi Hypothenar muscles Moves little finger toward body Little finger Abduction Pisiform bone Medial side of proximal phalanx of little finger
Flexor digiti minimi brevis Hypothenar muscles Flexes little finger Little finger Flexion Hamate bone; flexor retinaculum Medial side of proximal phalanx of little finger
Opponens digiti minimi Hypothenar muscles Moves little finger across palm to touch thumb Little finger Opposition Hamate bone; flexor retinaculum Medial side of fifth metacarpal
Lumbricals Intermediate muscles Flexes each finger at metacarpo-phalangeal joints; extends each finger at interphalangeal joints Fingers Flexion Palm (lateral sides of tendons in flexor digitorum profundus) Fingers 2–5 (lateral edges of extensional expansions on first phalanges)
Palmar interossei Intermediate muscles Adducts and flexes each finger at metacarpo-phalangeal joints; extends each finger at interphalangeal joints Fingers Adduction; flexion; extension Side of each metacarpal that faces metacarpal 3 (absent from metacarpal 3) Extensor expansion on first phalanx of each finger (except finger 3) on side facing finger 3
Dorsal interossei Intermediate muscles Abducts and flexes the three middle fingers at metacarpo-phalangeal joints; extends the three middle fingers at interphalangeal joints Fingers Abduction; flexion; extension Sides of metacarpals Both sides of finger 3; for each other finger, extensor expansion over first phalanx on side opposite finger 3
Table 11.16a: Gluteal Region Muscles That Move the Femur (Iliopsoas Group)
Prime Mover Movement Target Target Movement Direction Origin Insertion
Psoas major Raises knee at hip, as if performing a knee attack; assists l rotators in twisting thigh (and lower leg) outward; assists with bending over, maintaining posture Femur Thigh: flexion and lateral rotation; torso: flexion Lumbar vertebrae (L1-L5); thoracic vertebra (T12) Lesser trochanter of femur
Iliacus Raises knee at hip, as if performing a knee attack; assists l rotators in twisting thigh (and lower leg) outward; assists with bending over, maintaining posture Femur Thigh: flexion and lateral rotation; torso: flexion Iliac fossa; iliac crest; lateral sacrum Lesser trochanter of femur
 Table 11.16b: Gluteal Region Muscles That Move the Femur (Gluteal Group)
Prime Mover Movement Target Target Movement Direction Origin Insertion
Gluteus maximus Lowers knee and move back, as when getting ready to kick a ball Femur Extension Dorsal ilium; sacrum; coccyx Gluteal tuberosity of femur; iliotibial tract
Gluteus medius Open thighs, as when doing a split Femur Abduction Lateral surface of ilium Greater trochanter of femur
Gluteus minimus Brings the thighs back together Femur Abduction External surface of ilium Greater trochanter of femur
Tensor facia lata Assists with raising knee at hip and opening thighs; maintains posture by stabilizing the iliotibial track, which connects to the knee Femur Flexion; abduction Anterior aspect of iliac crest; anterior superior iliac spine Iliotibial tract
Table 11.16c: Gluteal Region Muscles That Move the Femur (Lateral Rotators)
Prime Mover Movement Target Target Movement Direction Origin Insertion
Piriformis Twists thigh (and lower leg) outward; maintains posture by stabilizing hip joint Femur Lateral rotation Anterolateral surface of sacrum Greater trochanter of femur
Obturator internus Twists thigh (and lower leg) outward; maintains posture by stabilizing hip joint Femur Lateral rotation Inner surface of obturator membrane; greater sciatic notch; margins of obturator foramen Greater trochanter in front of piriformis
Obturator externus Twists thigh (and lower leg) outward; maintains posture by stabilizing hip joint Femur Lateral rotation Outer surfaces of obturator membrane; pubic, and ischium; margins of obturator foramen Trochanteric fossa of posterior femur
Superior gemellus Twists thigh (and lower leg) outward; maintains posture by stabilizing hip joint Femur Lateral rotation Ischial spine Greater trochanter of femur
Inferior gemellus Twists thigh (and lower leg) outward; maintains posture by stabilizing hip joint Femur Lateral rotation Ischial tuberosity Greater trochanter of femur
Quadratus femoris Twists thigh (and lower leg) outward; maintains posture by stabilizing hip joint Femur Lateral rotation Ischial tuberosity Trochanteric crest of femur
Table 11.16d: Gluteal Region Muscles That Move the Femur (Adductors)
Prime Mover Movement Target Target Movement Direction Origin Insertion
Adductor longus Brings the thighs back together; assists with raising the knee Femur Adduction; flexion Pubis near pubic symphysis Linea aspera
Adductor brevis Brings the thighs back together; assists with raising the knee Femur Adduction; flexion Body of pubis; inferior ramus of pubis Linea aspera above adductor longus
Adductor magnus Brings the thighs back together; assists with raising the knee and moving the thigh back Femur Adduction; flexion; extension Ischial rami; pubic rami; ischial tuberosity Linea aspera; adductor tubercle of femur
Pectineus Opens thighs; assists with raising the knee and turning the thigh (and lower leg) inward Femur Adduction; flexion; medial rotation Pectineal line of pubis Lesser trochanter to linea aspera of posterior aspect of femur
Table 11.17a: Thigh Muscles That Move the Femur, Tibia, and Fibula (Medial Compartment of Thigh)
Prime Mover Movement Target Target Movement Direction Origin Insertion
Gracilis Moves back of lower legs up toward buttocks, as when kneeling; assists in opening thighs Femur; tibia/fibula Tibia/fibula: flexion; thigh: adduction Inferior ramus; body of pubis; ischial ramus Medial surface of tibia
Table 11.17b: Thigh Muscles That Move the Femur, Tibia, and Fibula (Anterior Compartment of Thigh: Quadriceps Femoris Group)
Prime Mover Movement Target Target Movement Direction Origin Insertion
Rectus femoris Moves lower leg out in front of body, as when kicking; assists in raising the knee Femur; tibia/fibula Tibia/fibula: extension; thigh: flexion Anterior inferior iliac spine; superior margin of acetabulum Patella; tibial tuberosity
Vastus lateralis Moves lower leg out in front of body, as when kicking Tibia/fibula Extension Greater trochanter; intertrochanteric line; linea aspera Patella; tibial tuberosity
Vastus medialis Moves lower leg out in front of body, as when kicking Tibia/fibula Extension Linea aspera; intertrochanteric line Patella; tibial tuberosity
Vastus intermedius Moves lower leg out in front of body, as when kicking Tibia/fibula Extension Proximal femur shaft Patella; tibial tuberosity
Sartorius Moves back of lower legs up toward buttocks, as when kneeling; assists in moving thigh diagonally upward and outward as when mounting a bike Femur; tibia/fibula Tibia: flexion; thigh: flexion, abduction, lateral rotation Anterior inferior iliac spine Medial aspect of proximal tibia
Table 11.17c: Thigh Muscles That Move the Femur, Tibia, and Fibula (Posterior Compartment of Thigh: Hamstring Group)
Prime Mover Movement Target Target Movement Direction Origin Insertion
Biceps femoris Moves back of lower legs up and back toward the buttocks, as when kneeling; moves thigh down and back; twists the thigh (and lower leg) outward Femur; tibia/fibula Tibia/fibula: flexion; thigh: extension, lateral rotation Ischial tuberosity; linea aspera; distal femur Head of fibula; lateral condyle of tibia
Semitendinosus Moves back of lower legs up and back toward the buttocks, as when kneeling; moves thigh down and back; twists the thigh (and lower leg) inward Femur; tibia/fibula Tibia/fibula: flexion; thigh: extension, medial rotation Ischial tuberosity Upper tibial shaft
Semimembranosus Moves back of lower legs up and back toward the buttocks, as when kneeling; moves thigh down and back; twists the thigh (and lower leg) inward Femur; tibia/fibula  Tibia/fibula: flexion; thigh: extension, medial rotation Ischial tuberosity Medial condyle of tibia; lateral condyle of femur
Table 11.18a: Muscles That Move the Feet and Toes (Anterior Compartment of Leg)
Prime Mover Movement Target Target Movement Direction Origin Insertion
Tibialis anterior Raises the sole of the foot off the ground, as when preparing to foot-tap; bends the inside of the foot upwards, as when catching your balance while falling laterally toward the opposite side as the balancing foot Foot Dorsiflexion; inversion Lateral condyle and upper tibial shaft; interosseous membrane Interior surface of medial cuneiform; First metatarsal bone
Extensor hallucis longus Raises the sole of the foot off the ground, as when preparing to foot-tap; extends the big toe Foot; big toe Foot: dorsiflexion; big toe: extension Anteromedial fibula shaft; interosseous membrane Distal phalanx of big toe
Extensor digitorum longus Raises the sole of the foot off the ground, as when preparing to foot-tap; extends toes Foot; toes 2-5 Foot: dorsiflexion; big toe: extension Lateral condyle of tibia; proximal portion of fibula; interosseous membrane Middle and distal phalanges of toes 2-5
Table 11.18b: Muscles That Move the Feet and Toes (Lateral Compartment of Leg)
Prime Mover Movement Target Target Movement Direction Origin Insertion
Fibularis longus Lowers the sole of the foot to the ground, as when foot-tapping or jumping; bends the inside of the foot downward, as when catching your balance while falling laterally toward the same side as the balancing foot Foot Plantar flexion and eversion Upper portion of lateral fibula First metatarsal; medial cuneiform
Fibularis (peroneus) brevis Lowers the sole of the foot to the ground, as when foot-tapping or jumping; bends the inside of the foot downward, as when catching your balance while falling laterally toward the same side as the balancing foot Foot Plantar flexion and eversion Distal fibula shaft Proximal end of fifth metatarsal
Table 11.18c: Muscles That Move the Feet and Toes (Posterior Compartment of Leg: Superficial Muscles)
Prime Mover Movement Target Target Movement Direction Origin Insertion
Gastrocnemius Lowers the sole of the foot to the ground, as when foot-tapping or jumping; assists in moving the back of the lower legs up and back toward the buttocks Foot; tibia/fibula Foot: plantar flexion; tibia/fibula: flexion Medial and lateral condyles of femur Posterior calcaneus
Soleus Lowers the sole of the foot to the ground, as when foot-tapping or jumping; maintains posture while walking Foot Plantar flexion Superior tibia; fibula; interosseous membrane Posterior calcaneus
Plantaris Lowers the sole of the foot to the ground, as when foot-tapping or jumping; assists in moving the back of the lower legs up and back toward the buttocks Foot; tibia/fibula Foot: plantar flexion; tibia/fibula: flexion Posterior femur above lateral condyle Calcaneus or calcaneus tendon
Tibialis posterior Lowers the sole of the foot to the ground, as when foot-tapping or jumping Foot Plantar flexion Superior tibia and fibula; interosseous membrane Several tarsal and metatarsals 2-4
Table 11.18d: Muscles That Move the Feet and Toes (Posterior Compartment of Leg: Deep Muscles)
Prime Mover Movement Target Target Movement Direction Origin Insertion
Popliteus Moves the back of the lower legs up and back toward the buttocks; assists in the rotation of the leg at the knee and thigh Tibia/fibula Tibia/fibula: flexion thigh and lower leg: medial and lateral rotation Lateral condyle of femur; lateral meniscus Proximal tibia
Flexor digitorum longus Lowers the sole of the foot to the ground, as when foot-tapping or jumping; bends the inside of the foot upward and flexes toes Foot; toes 2-5 Foot: plantar flexion and inversion toes: flexion Posterior tibia Distal phalanges of toes 2-5
Flexor hallucis longus Flexes the big toe Big toe; foot Big toe: flexion foot: plantar flexion Midshaft of fibula; interosseous membrane Distal phalanx of big toe
Table 11.19a: Intrinsic Muscles in the Foot (Dorsal Group)
Prime Mover Movement Target Target Movement Direction Origin Insertion
Extensor digitorum brevis Extends toes 2-5 Toes 2-5 Extension Calcaneus; extensor retinaculum Base of proximal phalanx of big toe; extensor expansions on toes 2-5
Table 11.19b: Intrinsic Muscles in the Foot (Plantar Group: Layer 1)
Prime Mover Movement Target Target Movement Direction Origin Insertion
Abductor hallucis Abducts and flexes big toe Big toe Abduction; flexion Calcaneal tuberosity; flexor retinaculum Proximal phalanx of big toe
Flexor digitorum brevis Flexes toes 2-4 Middle toes Flexion Calcaneal tuberosity Middle phalanx of toes 2-4
Abductor digit minimi Abducts and flexes small toe Toe 5 Abduction; flexion Calcaneal tuberosity Proximal phalanx of little toe
Table 11.19c: Intrinsic Muscles in the Foot (Plantar Group: Layer 2)
Prime Mover Movement Target Target Movement Direction Origin Insertion
Quadratus plantae Assists in flexing toes 2-5 Toes 2-5 Flexion Medial and lateral sides of calcaneus Tendon of flexor digitorum longus
Lumbricals Extends toes 2-5 at the interphalangeal joints; flexes the small toes at the metatarsophalangeal joints Toes 2-5 Extension flexion Tendons of flexor digitorum longus Meidal side of proximal phalanx of toes 2-5
Table 11.19d: Intrinsic Muscles in the Foot (Plantar Group: Layer 3)
Prime Mover Movement Target Target Movement Direction Origin Insertion
Flexor hallucis Flexes big toe Big toe Flexion Lateral cuneiform; cuboid bones Base of proximal phalanx of big toe
Adductor hallucis Adducts and flexes big toe Big toe Abduction; flexion Bases of metatarsals 2-4; fibularis longus tendon sheath; ligament across metatarsophalangeal joints Base of proximal phalanx of big toe
Flexor digiti minimi brevis Flexes small toe Little toe Flexion base of metatarsal 5; tendon sheath of fibularis longus Base of proximal phalanx of big toe
Table 11.19e: Intrinsic Muscles in the Foot (Plantar Group: Layer 4)
Prime Mover Movement Target Target Movement Direction Origin Insertion
Dorsal interossei Abducts and flexes middle toes at metatarsophalangeal joints; extends middle toes at interphalangeal joints Middle toes Abduction; flexion; extension Side of metatarsals Both sides of toe 2; for each other toe, extensor expansion over first phalanx on side opposite toe 2
Plantar interossei Abducts toes 3-5; flexes proximal phalanges and extends distal phalanges Small toes Abduction; flexion; extension Side of each metatarsal that faces metatarsal 2 (absent from metatarsal 2) Extensor expansion on first phalanx of each toe (except to 2) on side facing toe 2

Chapter 12

Table 12.1: Glial Cell Types by Location and Basic Function
CNS glia PNS glia Basic Function
Astrocyte Satellite cell Maintain extracellular environment, remove excess neurotransmitter, direct neural growth, induce bllod-brain barrier in CNS (astrocyte only)
Oligodendrocyte Schwann cell Create myelin
Microglia N/A Immune surveillance and phagocytosis
Ependymal cell N/A Create and circulate Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
Table 12.2: Structures of the CNS and PNS
Structure CNS PNS
Group of Neuron Cell Bodies
(i.e., gray matter)		 Nucleus Ganglion
Bundle of Axons
(i.e., white matter)		 Tract Nerve
Table 12.3: Example Chemical Synapse
Common Chemical Synapse Element Specific element in a Skeletal Muscle Neuromuscular Junction
presynaptic element somatic motor neuron axon terminal
neurotransmitter (packaged in vesicles) acetylcholine
synaptic cleft space between somatic motor neuron and muscle cell membrane
receptor proteins nicotinic acetylcholine (cholinergic) receptor
postsynaptic element postsynaptic element is the motor end plate of the sarcolemma
neurotransmitter elimination or re-uptake degrading enzyme: acetylcholinesterase
Table 12.4 Characteristics of Neurotransmitter Systems
System Cholinergic Amino acids Biogenic amines Neuropeptides
Neurotransmitters Acetylcholine Glutamate, glycine, GABA Serotonin (5-HT), dopamine, norepinephrine, (epinephrine) Met-enkephalin, beta-endorphin, VIP, Substance P, etc.
Receptors Nicotinic and muscarinic receptors Glu receptors, gly receptors, GABA receptors 5-HT receptors, D1 and D2 receptors, α-adrenergic and β-adrenergic receptors Receptors are too numerous to list, but are specific to the peptides.
Elimination Degradation by acetylcholinesterase Reuptake by neurons or glia Reuptake by neurons Degradation by enzymes called peptidases
Postsynaptic effect Nicotinic receptor causes depolarization. Muscarinic receptors can cause both depolarization or hyperpolarization depending on the subtype. Glu receptors cause depolarization. Gly and GABA receptors cause hyperpolarization. Depolarization or hyperpolarization depends on the specific receptor. For example, D1 receptors cause depolarization and D2 receptors cause hyperpolarization. Depolarization or hyperpolarization depends on the specific receptor.

Chapter 13

Table 13.1: Mechanoreceptors of Somatosensation
Name Historical (eponymous) name Location(s) Stimuli
Free nerve endings * Dermis, cornea, tongue, joint capsules Pain, temperature, mechanical deformation
Mechanoreceptors Merkel’s discs Epidermal–dermal junction, mucosal membranes Low frequency vibration (5–15 Hz)
Bulbous corpuscle Ruffini’s corpuscle Dermis, joint capsules Stretch
Tactile corpuscle Meissner’s corpuscle Papillary dermis, especially in the fingertips and lips Light touch, vibrations below 50 Hz
Lamellated corpuscle Pacinian corpuscle Deep dermis, subcutaneous tissue, joint capsules Deep pressure, high-frequency vibration (around 250 Hz)
Hair follicle plexus * Wrapped around hair follicles in the dermis Movement of hair
Muscle spindle * In line with skeletal muscle fibers Muscle contraction and stretch
Tendon stretch organ Golgi tendon organ In line with tendons Stretch of tendons

*No corresponding eponymous name.

Table 13.2: Cranial Nerves
Mnemonic # Name Function (S/M/B) Central connection (nuclei) Peripheral connection (ganglion or muscle)
On I Olfactory Smell (S) Olfactory bulb Olfactory epithelium
Old II Optic Vision (S) Hypothalamus/thalamus/midbrain Retina (retinal ganglion cells)
Olympus’ III Oculomotor Eye movements (M) Oculomotor nucleus Extraocular muscles (other 4), levator palpebrae superioris, ciliary ganglion (autonomic)
Towering IV Trochlear Eye movements (M) Trochlear nucleus Superior oblique muscle
Tops V Trigeminal Sensory/motor – face (B) Trigeminal nuclei in the midbrain, pons, and medulla Trigeminal
A VI Abducens Eye movements (M) Abducens nucleus Lateral rectus muscle
Finn VII Facial Motor – face, Taste (B) Facial nucleus, solitary nucleus, superior salivatory nucleus Facial muscles, Geniculate ganglion, Pterygopalatine ganglion (autonomic)
And VIII Auditory (Vestibulocochlear) Hearing/balance (S) Cochlear nucleus, Vestibular nucleus/cerebellum Spiral ganglion (hearing), Vestibular ganglion (balance)
German IX Glossopharyngeal Motor – throat Taste (B) Solitary nucleus, inferior salivatory nucleus, nucleus ambiguus Pharyngeal muscles, Geniculate ganglion, Otic ganglion (autonomic)
Viewed X Vagus Motor/sensory – viscera (autonomic) (B) Medulla Terminal ganglia serving thoracic and upper abdominal organs (heart and small intestines)
Some XI Spinal Accessory Motor – head and neck (M) Spinal accessory nucleus Neck muscles
Hops XII Hypoglossal Motor – lower throat (M) Hypoglossal nucleus Muscles of the larynx and lower pharynx

Chapter 14

Table 14.1: Stages of Embryonic Development
Neural tube Primary vesicle stage Secondary vesicle stage Adult structures Ventricles
Anterior neural tube Prosencephalon Telencephalon Cerebrum Lateral ventricles
Anterior neural tube Prosencephalon Diencephalon Diencephalon Third ventricle
Anterior neural tube Mesencephalon Mesencephalon Midbrain Cerebral aqueduct
Anterior neural tube Rhombencephalon Metencephalon Pons cerebellum Fourth ventricle
Anterior neural tube Rhombencephalon Myelencephalon Medulla Fourth ventricle
Posterior neural tube N/A N/A Spinal cord Central canal
Table 14.2: Components of CSF Circulation
Components Lateral ventricles Third ventricle Cerebral aqueduct Fourth ventricle Central canal Subarachnoid space
Location in CNS Cerebrum Diencephalon Midbrain Between pons/upper medulla and cerebellum Spinal cord External to entire CNS
Blood vessel structure Choroid plexus Choroid plexus None Choroid plexus None Arachnoid granulations

Chapter 16

Table 16.1: Autonomic System Signaling Molecules
Neuron Type Sympathetic Parasympathetic
Preganglionic Acetylcholine → nicotinic receptor Acetylcholine → nicotinic receptor
Postganglionic Norepinephrine → α- or β-adrenergic receptors

Acetylcholine → muscarinic receptor (associated with sweat glands and the blood vessels associated with skeletal muscles only
 Acetylcholine → muscarinic receptor
Table 16.2: Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Effects of Different Drug Types
Drug type Example(s) Sympathetic effect Parasympathetic effect Overall result
Nicotinic agonists Nicotine Mimic ACh at preganglionic synapses, causing activation of postganglionic fibers and the release of norepinephrine onto the target organ Mimic ACh at preganglionic synapses, causing activation of postganglionic fibers and the release of ACh onto the target organ Most conflicting signals cancel each other out, but cardiovascular system is susceptible to hypertension and arrhythmias
Sympathomimetic drugs Phenylephrine Bind to adrenergic receptors or mimics sympathetic action in some other way No effect Increase sympathetic tone
Sympatholytic drugs β-blockers such as propanolol or metoprolol; α-agonists such as clonidine Block binding to adrenergic drug or decrease adrenergic signals No effect Increase parasympathetic tone
Parasymphatho-mimetics/muscarinic agonists Pilocarpine No effect, except on sweat glands Bind to muscarinic receptor, similar to ACh Increase parasympathetic tone
Anticholinergics/muscarinic antagonists Atropine, scopolamine, dimenhydrinate No effect Block muscarinic receptors and parasympathetic function Increase sympathetic tone

Chapter 17

Table 17.1: Endocrine and Nervous Systems
Characteristic Endocrine system Nervous system
Signaling mechanism(s) Chemical Chemical/electrical
Primary chemical signal Hormones Neurotransmitters
Distance traveled Long or short Always short
Response time Fast or slow Always fast
Environment targeted Internal Internal and external
Table 17.2: Endocrine Glands and Their Major Hormones
Endocrine gland Associated hormones Chemical class Effect
Pituitary (anterior) Growth hormone (GH) Peptide Promotes growth of body tissues
Pituitary (anterior) Prolactin (PRL) Peptide Promotes milk production
Pituitary (anterior) Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) Peptide Stimulates thyroid hormone release
Pituitary (anterior) Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) Peptide Stimulates hormone release by adrenal cortex
Pituitary (anterior) Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) Peptide Stimulates gamete production
Pituitary (anterior) Luteinizing hormone (LH) Peptide Stimulates androgen production by gonads
Pituitary (posterior) Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) Peptide Stimulates water reabsorption by kidneys
Pituitary (posterior) Oxytocin Peptide Stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth
Thyroid Thyroxine (T4), triiodothyronine (T3) Amine Stimulate basal metabolic rate
Thyroid Calcitonin Peptide Reduces blood Ca2+ levels
Parathyroid Parathyroid hormone (PTH) Peptide Increases blood Ca2+ levels
Adrenal (cortex) Aldosterone Steroid Increases blood Na+ levels
Adrenal (cortex) Cortisol, corticosterone, cortisone Steroid Increase blood glucose levels
Adrenal (medulla) Epinephrine, norepinephrine Amine Stimulate fight-or-flight response
Pineal Melatonin Amine Regulates sleep cycles
Pancreas Insulin Peptide Reduces blood glucose levels
Pancreas Glucagon Peptide Increases blood glucose levels
Testes Testosterone Steroid Stimulates development of male secondary sex characteristics and sperm production
Ovaries Estrogens and progesterone Steroid Stimulate development of female secondary sex characteristics and prepare the body for childbirth
Table 17.3: Pituitary Hormones
Pituitary lobe Associated hormones Chemical class Effect
Anterior Growth hormone (GH) Protein Promotes growth of body tissues
Anterior Prolactin (PRL) Peptide Promotes milk production from mammary glands
Anterior Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) Glycoprotein Stimulates thyroid hormone release from thyroid
Anterior Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) Peptide Stimulates hormone release by adrenal cortex
Anterior Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) Glycoprotein Stimulates gamete production in gonads
Anterior Luteinizing hormone (LH) Glycoprotein Stimulates androgen production by gonads
Posterior Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) Peptide Stimulates water reabsorption by kidneys
Posterior Oxytocin Peptide Stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth
Intermediate zone Melanocyte-stimulating hormone Peptide Stimulates melanin formation in melanocytes
Table 17.4: Thyroid Hormones
Associated hormones Chemical class Effect
Thyroxine (T4), triiodothyronine (T3) Amine Stimulate basal metabolic rate
Calcitonin Peptide Reduces blood Ca2+ levels
Table 17.5: Hormones of the Adrenal Glands
Adrenal gland Associated hormones Chemical class Effect
Adrenal cortex Aldosterone Steroid Increases blood Na+ levels
Adrenal cortex Cortisol, corticosterone, cortisone Steroid Increase blood glucose levels
Adrenal cortex Androgens Steroid Female Libido and Postmenopausal Estrogen
Adrenal medulla Epinephrine, norepinephrine Amine Stimulate fight-or-flight response
Table 17.6: Reproductive Hormones
Gonad Associated hormones Chemical class Effect
Testes Testosterone Steroid Stimulates development of male secondary sex characteristics and sperm production
Testes & Ovaries Inhibin Protein Inhibits FSH release from pituitary
Ovaries Estrogens and progesterone Steroid Stimulate development of female secondary sex characteristics and prepare the body for childbirth
Placenta Human chorionic gonadotropin Protein Promotes progesterone synthesis during pregnancy and inhibits immune response against fetus
Table 17.7: Hormones of the Pancreas
Associated hormones Chemical class Effect
Insulin (beta cells) Protein Reduces blood glucose levels
Glucagon (alpha cells) Protein Increases blood glucose levels
Somatostatin (delta cells) Protein Inhibits insulin and glucagon release
Pancreatic polypeptide (PP cells) Protein Role in appetite
Table 17.8: Organs with Secondary Endocrine Functions and Their Major Hormones
Organ Major hormones Effects
Heart Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) Reduces blood volume, blood pressure, and Na+ concentration
Gastrointestinal tract Gastrin, secretin, and cholecystokinin Aid digestion of food and buffering of stomach acids
Gastrointestinal tract Glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide (GIP) and glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) Stimulate beta cells of the pancreas to release insulin
Kidneys Renin Stimulates release of aldosterone
Kidneys Calcitriol Aids in the absorption of Ca2+
Kidneys Erythropoietin Triggers the formation of red blood cells in the bone marrow
Skeleton FGF23 Inhibits production of calcitriol and increases phosphate excretion
Skeleton Osteocalcin Increases insulin production
Adipose tissue Leptin Promotes satiety signals in the brain
Adipose tissue Adiponectin Reduces insulin resistance
Skin Cholecalciferol Modified to form vitamin D
Thymus (and other organs) Thymosins Among other things, aids in the development of T lymphocytes of the immune system
Liver Insulin-like growth factor-1 Stimulates bodily growth
Liver Angiotensinogen Raises blood pressure
Liver Thrombopoetin Causes increase in platelets
Liver Hepcidin Blocks release of iron into body fluids

Chapter 18

Table 18.1: Major Blood Components
Component and % of blood Subcomponent and % of component Type and % (where appropriate) Site of Production Major function(s)
Plasma 46-63 percent Water 92 percent Fluid Absorbed by intestinal tract or produced by metabolism Transport medium
Plasma 46-63 percent Plasma proteins 7 percent Albumin 54-60 percent Liver maintain osmotic concentration, transport lipid molecules
Plasma 46-63 percent Plasma proteins 7 percent Globulins 35-38 percent Alpha globulins — liver Transport, maintain osmotic concentration
Plasma 46-63 percent Plasma proteins 7 percent Globulins 35-38 percent Beta globulins — liver Transport, maintain osmotic concentration
Plasma 46-63 percent Plasma proteins 7 percent Globulins 35-38 percent Gamma globulins (immunoglobulins)–plasma cells Immune responses
Plasma 46-63 percent Plasma proteins 7 percent Fibrinogen 4-7 percent Liver Blood clotting in hemostasis
Plasma 46-63 percent Regulatory proteins <1 percent Hormones and enzymes Various sources Regulate various body functions
Plasma 46-63 percent Other solutes 1 percent Nutrients, gases, and wastes Absorbed by intestinal tract, exchanged in respiratory system, or produced by cells Numerous and varied
Formed elements 37-54 percent Erythrocytes 99 percent Erythrocytes Red bone marrow Transport gases, primarily oxygen and some carbon dioxide
Formed elements 37-54 percent Leukocytes <1 percent Platelets <1 percent Granular leukocytes: neutrophils eosinophils basophils Red bone marrow Nonspecific immunity
Formed elements 37-54 percent Leukocytes <1 percent Platelets <1 percent Agranular leukocytes: lymphocytes monocytes Lymphocytes: bone marrow and lymphatic tissue Lymphocytes: specific immunity
Formed elements 37-54 percent Leukocytes <1 percent Platelets <1 percent Agranular leukocytes: lymphocytes monocytes Monocytes: red bone marrow Monocytes: nonspecific immunity
Formed elements 37-54 percent Platelets <1 percent N/A Megakaryocytes: red bone marrow Hemostasis
Table 18.2: Clotting Factors
Factor number Name Type of molecule Source Pathway(s)
I Fibrinogen Plasma protein Liver Common; converted into fibrin
II Prothrombin Plasma protein Liver* Common; converted into thrombin
III Tissue thromboplastin or tissue factor Lipoprotein mixture Damaged cells and platelets Extrinsic
IV Calcium ions Inorganic ions in plasma Diet, platelets, bone matrix Entire process
V Proaccelerin Plasma protein Liver, platelets Extrinsic and intrinsic
VI Not used Not used Not used Not used
VII Proconvertin Plasma protein Liver * Extrinsic
VIII Antihemolytic factor A Plasma protein factor Platelets and endothelial cells Intrinsic; deficiency results in hemophilia A
IX Antihemolytic factor B (plasma thromboplastin component) Plasma protein Liver* Intrinsic; deficiency results in hemophilia B
X Stuart–Prower factor (thrombokinase) Protein Liver* Extrinsic and intrinsic
XI Antihemolytic factor C (plasma thromboplastin antecedent) Plasma protein Liver Intrinsic; deficiency results in hemophilia C
XII Hageman factor Plasma protein Liver Intrinsic; initiates clotting in vitro also activates plasmin
XIII Fibrin-stabilizing factor Plasma protein Liver, platelets Stabilizes fibrin; slows fibrinolysis

*Vitamin K required.

Table 18.3: Summary of ABO and Rh Blood Types within the United States
Blood Type Asian Black non-Hispanic Hispanic North American Indian White non-Hispanic
A+ 27.3 24.0 28.7 31.3 33.0
A− 0.5 1.9 2.4 3.8 6.8
B+ 25.0 18.4 9.2 7.0 9.1
B− 0.4 1.3 0.7 0.9 1.8
AB+ 7.0 4.0 2.3 2.2 3.4
AB− 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.7
O+ 39.0 46.6 52.6 50.0 37.2
O− 0.7 3.6 3.9 4.7 8.0

Chapter 19

Table 19.1: Major Factors Increasing Heart Rate and Force of Contraction
Factor Effect
Cardioaccelerator nerves Release of norepinephrine
Proprioreceptors Increased rates of firing during exercise
Chemoreceptors Decreased levels of O2; increased levels of H+, CO2, and lactic acid
Baroreceptors Decreased rates of firing, indicating falling blood volume/pressure
Limbic system Anticipation of physical exercise or strong emotions
Catecholamines Increased epinephrine and norepinephrine
Thyroid hormones Increased T3 and T4
Calcium Increased Ca2+
Potassium Decreased K+
Sodium Decreased Na+
Body temperature Increased body temperature
Nicotine and caffeine Stimulants, increasing heart rate
Table 19.2: Factors Decreasing Heart Rate and Force of Contraction
Factor Effect
Cardioinhibitor nerves (vagus) Release of acetylcholine
Proprioreceptors Decreased rates of firing following exercise
Chemoreceptors Increased levels of O2; decreased levels of H+ and CO2
Baroreceptors Increased rates of firing, indicating higher blood volume/pressure
Limbic system Anticipation of relaxation
Catecholamines Decreased epinephrine and norepinephrine
Thyroid hormones Decreased T3 and T4
Calcium Decreased Ca2+
Potassium Increased K+
Sodium Increased Na+
Body temperature Decrease in body temperature
Table 19.3: Factors Affecting Stroke Volume
Direction Preload Contractility Afterload
Raised due to:
  • increased filling time
  • increased venous return

Increases end diastolic volume, Increases stroke volume
  • sympathetic stimulation
  • epinephrine and norepinephrine
  • high intracellular calcium level
  • thyroid hormones
  • glucagon

Decreases end systolic volume, Increases stroke volume
  • increased vascular resistance
  • semilunar valve damage

Increases end systolic volume, Decreases stroke volume
Lowered due to:
  • decreased thyroid hormones
  • decreased calcium ions
  • high or low potassium ions
  • high or low sodium
  • low body temperature
  • hypoxia
  • abnormal pH balance
  • drugs (i.e., calcium channel blockers)

Decreases end diastolic volume, Decreases stroke volume
  • parasympathetic stimulation
  • acetylcholine
  • hypoxia
  • hyperkalemia

Increases end systolic volume, Decreases stroke volume
  • decreased vascular resistance

Decreases end systolic volume, Increases stroke volume
Table 19.4: Summary of Cardiac Response to Decreasing Blood Flow and Pressure Due to Decreasing Cardiac Output
Response attribute Baroreceptors (aorta, carotid arteries, venae cavae, and atria) Chemoreceptors (both central nervous system and in proximity to baroreceptors)
Sensitive to Decreasing stretch Decreasing O2 and increasing CO2, H+, and lactic acid
Action Parasympathetic stimulation suppressed Sympathetic stimulation increased
Effect on Heart Increasing heart rate and increasing stroke volume Increasing heart rate and increasing stroke volume
Overall effect Increasing blood flow and pressure due to increasing cardiac output; homeostasis restored Increasing blood flow and pressure due to increasing cardiac output; homeostasis restored
Table 19.5: Summary of Cardiac Response to Increasing Blood Flow and Pressure Due to Increasing Cardiac Output
Response attribute Baroreceptors (aorta, carotid arteries, venae cavae, and atria) Chemoreceptors (both central nervous system and in proximity to baroreceptors)
Sensitive to Increasing stretch Increasing O2 and decreasing CO2, H+, and lactic acid
Action Parasympathetic stimulation increased Sympathetic stimulation suppressed
Effect on heart Decreasing heart rate and decreasing stroke volume Decreasing heart rate and decreasing stroke volume
Overall effect Decreasing blood flow and pressure due to decreasing cardiac output; homeostasis restored Decreasing blood flow and pressure due to decreasing cardiac output; homeostasis restored

Chapter 20

Table 20.1: Comparison of Tunics in Arteries and Veins
Comparison Arteries Veins
General appearance Thick walls with small lumens, Generally appear rounded Thin walls with large lumens, Generally appear flattened
Tunica intima Endothelium usually appears wavy due to constriction of smooth muscle, Internal elastic membrane present in larger vessels Endothelium appears smooth,
Internal elastic membrane absent
Tunica media Normally the thickest layer in arteries, Smooth muscle cells and elastic fibers predominate (the proportions of these vary with distance from the heart), External elastic membrane present in larger vessels Normally thinner than the tunica externa, Smooth muscle cells and collagenous fibers predominate, Nervi vasorum and vasa vasorum present, External elastic membrane absent,
Tunica externa Normally thinner than the tunica media in all but the largest arteries, Collagenous and elastic fibers, Nervi vasorum and vasa vasorum present Normally the thickest layer in veins, Collagenous and smooth fibers predominate, Some smooth muscle fibers, Nervi vasorum and vasa vasorum present
Table 20.2: Comparison of Arteries and Veins
Comparison Arteries Veins
Direction of blood flow Conducts blood away from the heart Conducts blood toward the heart
General appearance Rounded Irregular, often collapsed
Pressure High Low
Wall thickness Thick Thin
Relative oxygen concentration Higher in systemic arteries, Lower in pulmonary arteries Lower in systemic veins, Higher in pulmonary veins
Valves Not present Present most commonly in limbs and in veins inferior to the heart
Table 20.3 Distribution of Blood Flow
Primary distribution Sub-distribution Secondary sub-distribution
System circulation 84% Systemic veins 64% Large veins 18%
Large venous networks (liver, bone marrow, and integument) 21%
Venules and medium-sized veins 25%
Systemic arteries 13% Arterioles 2%
Muscular arteries 5%
Elastic arteries 4%
Aorta 2%
Systemic capillaries 7% Systemic capillaries 7%
Pulmonary circulation 9% Pulmonary veins 4% —
Pulmonary capillaries 2% —
Pulmonary arteries 3% —
Heart 7% — —
Table: 20.4: Systemic Blood Flow During Rest, Mild Exercise, and Maximal Exercise in a Healthy Young Individual
Organ Resting
(mL/min)		 Mild exercise
(mL/min)		 Maximal exercise
(mL/min)
Skeletal muscle 1200 4500 12,500
Heart 250 350 750
Brain 750 750 750
Integument 500 1500 1900
Kidney 1100 900 600
Gastrointestinal 1400 1100 600
Others

(i.e., liver, spleen)
 600 400 400
Total 5800 9500 17,500
Table 20.5: Summary of Mechanisms Regulating Arteriole Smooth Muscle and Veins
Control Factor Vasoconstriction Vasodilation
Neural Sympathetic stimulation Arterioles within integument, abdominal viscera, and mucosa membrane; skeletal muscle (at high levels); varied in veins and venules Arterioles within heart; skeletal muscles at low to moderate levels
Parasympathetic No known innervation for most Arterioles in external genitalia, no known innervation for most other arterioles or veins
Endocrine Epinephrine Similar to sympathetic stimulation for extended flight-or-fight responses; at high levels, binds to specialized alpha (α) receptors Similar to sympathetic stimulation for extended flight-or-fight responses; at low to moderate levels, binds to specialized beta (β) receptors
Norepinephrine Similar to epinephrine Similar to epinephrine
Angiotensin II Powerful generalized vasoconstrictor; also stimulates release of aldosterone and ADH N/A
 (peptide) N/A Powerful generalized vasodilator; also promotes loss of fluid volume kidneys, hence reducing blood volume, pressure, and flow
ADH Moderately strong generalized vasoconstrictor; also causes body to retain more fluid via kidneys, increasing blood volume and pressure N/A
Other factors Decreasing levels of oxygen N/A Vasodilation, also opens precapillary sphincters
Decreasing pH N/A Vasodilation, also opens precapillary sphincters
Increasing levels of carbon dioxide N/A Vasodilation, also opens precapillary sphincters
Increasing levels of potassium ion N/A Vasodilation, also opens precapillary sphincters
Increasing levels of prostaglandins Vasoconstriction, closes precapillary sphincters for many Vasodilation, also opens precapillary sphincters
Increasing levels of adenosine N/A  Vasodilation
Increasing levels of NO N/A Vasodilation, also opens precapillary sphincters
Increasing levels of lactic acid and other metabolites N/A Vasodilation, also opens precapillary sphincters
Increasing levels of endothelins Vasoconstriction N/A
Increasing levels of platelet secretions Vasoconstriction N/A
Increasing hyperthermia N/A  Vasodilation
Stretching of vascular wall (myogenic) Vasoconstriction N/A
Increasing levels of histamines from basophils and mast cells N/A Vasodilation
Table 20.6: Interaction of the Circulatory System with Other Body Systems
System Role of Circulatory System
Digestive Absorbs nutrients and water; delivers nutrients (except most lipids) to liver for processing by hepatic portal vein; provides nutrients essential for hematopoiesis and building hemoglobin
Endocrine Delivers hormones: atrial natriuretic hormone (peptide) secreted by the heart atrial cells to help regulate blood volumes and pressures; epinephrine, ANH, angiotensin II, ADH, and thyroxine to help regulate blood pressure; estrogen to promote vascular health in women and men
Integumentary Carries clotting factors, platelets, and white blood cells for hemostasis, fighting infection, and repairing damage; regulates temperature by controlling blood flow to the surface, where heat can be dissipated; provides some coloration of integument; acts as a blood reservoir
Lymphatic Transports various white blood cells, including those produced by lymphatic tissue, and immunoglobulins (antibodies) throughout the body to maintain health; carries excess tissue fluid not able to be reabsorbed by the vascular capillaries back to the lymphatic system for processing
Muscular Provides nutrients and oxygen for contraction; removes lactic acid and distributes heat generated by contraction; muscular pumps aid in venous return; exercise contributes to cardiovascular health and helps to prevent atherosclerosis
Nervous Produces cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) within choroid plexuses; contributes to blood–brain barrier; cardiac and vasomotor centers regulate cardiac output and blood flow through vessels via autonomic system
Reproductive Aids in erection of genitalia in both sexes during sexual arousal; transports gonadotropic hormones that regulate reproductive functions
Respiratory Provides blood for critical exchange of gases to carry oxygen needed for metabolic reactions and carbon dioxide generated as byproducts of these processes
Skeletal Provides calcium, phosphate, and other minerals critical for bone matrix; transports hormones regulating buildup and absorption of matrix including growth hormone (somatotropin), thyroid hormone, calcitonins, and parathyroid hormone; erythropoietin stimulates myeloid cell hematopoiesis; some level of protection for select vessels by bony structures
Urinary Delivers 20% of resting circulation to kidneys for filtering, reabsorption of useful products, and secretion of excesses; regulates blood volume and pressure by regulating fluid loss in the form of urine and by releasing the enzyme renin that is essential in the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone mechanism
Table 20.7: Pulmonary Arteries and Veins
Vessel Description
Pulmonary trunk Single large vessel exiting the right ventricle that divides to form the right and left pulmonary arteries
Pulmonary arteries Left and right vessels that form from the pulmonary trunk and lead to smaller arterioles and eventually to the pulmonary capillaries
Pulmonary veins Two sets of paired vessels—one pair on each side—that are formed from the small venules, leading away from the pulmonary capillaries to flow into the left atrium
Table 20.8: Components of the Aorta
Vessel Description
Aorta Largest artery in the body, originating from the left ventricle and descending to the abdominal region, where it bifurcates into the common iliac arteries at the level of the fourth lumbar vertebra; arteries originating from the aorta distribute blood to virtually all tissues of the body
Ascending aorta Initial portion of the aorta, rising superiorly from the left ventricle for a distance of approximately 5 cm
Aortic arch Graceful arc to the left that connects the ascending aorta to the descending aorta; ends at the intervertebral disk between the fourth and fifth thoracic vertebrae
Descending aorta Portion of the aorta that continues inferiorly past the end of the aortic arch; subdivided into the thoracic aorta and the abdominal aorta
Thoracic aorta Portion of the descending aorta superior to the aortic hiatus
Abdominal aorta Portion of the aorta inferior to the aortic hiatus and superior to the common iliac arteries
Table 20.9: Aortic Arch Branches and Brain Circulation
Vessel Description
Brachiocephalic artery Single vessel located on the right side of the body; the first vessel branching from the aortic arch; gives rise to the right subclavian artery and the right common carotid artery; supplies blood to the head, neck, upper limb, and wall of the thoracic region
Subclavian artery The right subclavian artery arises from the brachiocephalic artery while the left subclavian artery arises from the aortic arch; gives rise to the internal thoracic, vertebral, and thyrocervical arteries; supplies blood to the arms, chest, shoulders, back, and central nervous system
Internal thoracic artery Also called the mammary artery; arises from the subclavian artery; supplies blood to the thymus, pericardium of the heart, and anterior chest wall
Vertebral artery Arises from the subclavian artery and passes through the vertebral foramen through the foramen magnum to the brain; joins with the internal carotid artery to form the arterial circle; supplies blood to the brain and spinal cord
Thyrocervical artery Arises from the subclavian artery; supplies blood to the thyroid, the cervical region, the upper back, and shoulder
Common carotid artery The right common carotid artery arises from the brachiocephalic artery and the left common carotid artery arises from the aortic arch; each gives rise to the external and internal carotid arteries; supplies the respective sides of the head and neck
External carotid artery Arises from the common carotid artery; supplies blood to numerous structures within the face, lower jaw, neck, esophagus, and larynx
Internal carotid artery Arises from the common carotid artery and begins with the carotid sinus; goes through the carotid canal of the temporal bone to the base of the brain; combines with the branches of the vertebral artery, forming the arterial circle; supplies blood to the brain
Arterial circle or circle of Willis An anastomosis located at the base of the brain that ensures continual blood supply; formed from the branches of the internal carotid and vertebral arteries; supplies blood to the brain
Anterior cerebral artery Arises from the internal carotid artery; supplies blood to the frontal lobe of the cerebrum
Middle cerebral artery Another branch of the internal carotid artery; supplies blood to the temporal and parietal lobes of the cerebrum
Ophthalmic artery Branch of the internal carotid artery; supplies blood to the eyes
Anterior communicating artery An anastomosis of the right and left internal carotid arteries; supplies blood to the brain
Posterior communicating artery Branches of the posterior cerebral artery that form part of the posterior portion of the arterial circle; supplies blood to the brain
Posterior cerebral artery Branch of the basilar artery that forms a portion of the posterior segment of the arterial circle of Willis; supplies blood to the posterior portion of the cerebrum and brain stem
Basilar artery Formed from the fusion of the two vertebral arteries; sends branches to the cerebellum, brain stem, and the posterior cerebral arteries; the main blood supply to the brain stem
Table 20.10: Arteries of the Thoracic Region
Vessel Description
Visceral branches A group of arterial branches of the thoracic aorta; supplies blood to the viscera (i.e., organs) of the thorax
Bronchial artery Systemic branch from the aorta that provides oxygenated blood to the lungs; this blood supply is in addition to the pulmonary circuit that brings blood for oxygenation
Pericardial artery Branch of the thoracic aorta; supplies blood to the pericardium
Esophageal artery Branch of the thoracic aorta; supplies blood to the esophagus
Mediastinal artery Branch of the thoracic aorta; supplies blood to the mediastinum
Parietal branches Also called somatic branches, a group of arterial branches of the thoracic aorta; include those that supply blood to the thoracic wall, vertebral column, and the superior surface of the diaphragm
Intercostal artery Branch of the thoracic aorta; supplies blood to the muscles of the thoracic cavity and vertebral column
Superior phrenic artery Branch of the thoracic aorta; supplies blood to the superior surface of the diaphragm
Table 20.11: Vessels of the Abdominal Aorta
Vessel Description
Celiac trunk Also called the celiac artery; a major branch of the abdominal aorta; gives rise to the left gastric artery, the splenic artery, and the common hepatic artery that forms the hepatic artery to the liver, the right gastric artery to the stomach, and the cystic artery to the gall bladder
Left gastric artery Branch of the celiac trunk; supplies blood to the stomach
Splenic artery Branch of the celiac trunk; supplies blood to the spleen
Common hepatic artery Branch of the celiac trunk that forms the hepatic artery, the right gastric artery, and the cystic artery
Hepatic artery proper Branch of the common hepatic artery; supplies systemic blood to the liver
Right gastric artery Branch of the common hepatic artery; supplies blood to the stomach
Cystic artery Branch of the common hepatic artery; supplies blood to the gall bladder
Superior mesenteric artery Branch of the abdominal aorta; supplies blood to the small intestine (duodenum, jejunum, and ileum), the pancreas, and a majority of the large intestine
Inferior mesenteric artery Branch of the abdominal aorta; supplies blood to the distal segment of the large intestine and rectum
Inferior phrenic arteries Branches of the abdominal aorta; supply blood to the inferior surface of the diaphragm
Adrenal artery Branch of the abdominal aorta; supplies blood to the adrenal (suprarenal) glands
Renal artery Branch of the abdominal aorta; supplies each kidney
Gonadal artery Branch of the abdominal aorta; supplies blood to the gonads or reproductive organs; also described as ovarian arteries or testicular arteries, depending upon the sex of the individual
Ovarian artery Branch of the abdominal aorta; supplies blood to ovary, uterine (Fallopian) tube, and uterus
Testicular artery Branch of the abdominal aorta; ultimately travels outside the body cavity to the testes and forms one component of the spermatic cord
Lumbar arteries Branches of the abdominal aorta; supply blood to the lumbar region, the abdominal wall, and spinal cord
Common iliac artery Branch of the aorta that leads to the internal and external iliac arteries
Median sacral artery Continuation of the aorta into the sacrum
Internal iliac artery Branch from the common iliac arteries; supplies blood to the urinary bladder, walls of the pelvis, external genitalia, and the medial portion of the femoral region; in females, also provides blood to the uterus and vagina
External iliac artery Branch of the common iliac artery that leaves the body cavity and becomes a femoral artery; supplies blood to the lower limbs
Table 20.12: Arteries Serving the Upper Limbs
Vessel Description
Axillary artery Continuation of the subclavian artery as it penetrates the body wall and enters the axillary region; supplies blood to the region near the head of the humerus (humeral circumflex arteries); the majority of the vessel continues into the brachium and becomes the brachial artery
Brachial artery Continuation of the axillary artery in the brachium; supplies blood to much of the brachial region; gives off several smaller branches that provide blood to the posterior surface of the arm in the region of the elbow; bifurcates into the radial and ulnar arteries at the coronoid fossa
Radial artery Formed at the bifurcation of the brachial artery; parallels the radius; gives off smaller branches until it reaches the carpal region where it fuses with the ulnar artery to form the superficial and deep palmar arches; supplies blood to the lower arm and carpal region
Ulnar artery Formed at the bifurcation of the brachial artery; parallels the ulna; gives off smaller branches until it reaches the carpal region where it fuses with the radial artery to form the superficial and deep palmar arches; supplies blood to the lower arm and carpal region
Palmar arches (superficial and deep) Formed from anastomosis of the radial and ulnar arteries; supply blood to the hand and digital arteries
Digital arteries Formed from the superficial and deep palmar arches; supply blood to the digits
Table 20.13: Arteries Serving the Lower Limbs
Vessel Description
Femoral artery Continuation of the external iliac artery after it passes through the body cavity; divides into several smaller branches, the lateral deep femoral artery, and the genicular artery; becomes the popliteal artery as it passes posterior to the knee
Deep femoral artery Branch of the femoral artery; gives rise to the lateral circumflex arteries
Lateral circumflex artery Branch of the deep femoral artery; supplies blood to the deep muscles of the thigh and the ventral and lateral regions of the integument
Genicular artery Branch of the femoral artery; supplies blood to the region of the knee
Popliteal artery Continuation of the femoral artery posterior to the knee; branches into the anterior and posterior tibial arteries
Anterior tibial artery Branches from the popliteal artery; supplies blood to the anterior tibial region; becomes the dorsalis pedis artery
Dorsalis pedis artery Forms from the anterior tibial artery; branches repeatedly to supply blood to the tarsal and dorsal regions of the foot
Posterior tibial artery Branches from the popliteal artery and gives rise to the fibular or peroneal artery; supplies blood to the posterior tibial region
Medial plantar artery Arises from the bifurcation of the posterior tibial arteries; supplies blood to the medial plantar surfaces of the foot
Lateral plantar artery Arises from the bifurcation of the posterior tibial arteries; supplies blood to the lateral plantar surfaces of the foot
Dorsal or arcuate arch Formed from the anastomosis of the dorsalis pedis artery and the medial and plantar arteries; branches supply the distal portions of the foot and digits
Plantar arch Formed from the anastomosis of the dorsalis pedis artery and the medial and plantar arteries; branches supply the distal portions of the foot and digits
Table 20.14: Veins of the Thoracic Region
Vessel Description
Superior vena cava Large systemic vein; drains blood from most areas superior to the diaphragm; empties into the right atrium
Subclavian vein Located deep in the thoracic cavity; formed by the axillary vein as it enters the thoracic cavity from the axillary region; drains the axillary and smaller local veins near the scapular region and leads to the brachiocephalic vein
Brachiocephalic veins Pair of veins that form from a fusion of the external and internal jugular veins and the subclavian vein; subclavian, external and internal jugulars, vertebral, and internal thoracic veins flow into it; drain the upper thoracic region and lead to the superior vena cava
Vertebral vein Arises from the base of the brain and the cervical region of the spinal cord; passes through the intervertebral foramina in the cervical vertebrae; drains smaller veins from the cranium, spinal cord, and vertebrae, and leads to the brachiocephalic vein; counterpart of the vertebral artery
Internal thoracic veins Also called internal mammary veins; drain the anterior surface of the chest wall and lead to the brachiocephalic vein
Intercostal vein Drains the muscles of the thoracic wall and leads to the azygos vein
Esophageal vein Drains the inferior portions of the esophagus and leads to the azygos vein
Bronchial vein Drains the systemic circulation from the lungs and leads to the azygos vein
Azygos vein Originates in the lumbar region and passes through the diaphragm into the thoracic cavity on the right side of the vertebral column; drains blood from the intercostal veins, esophageal veins, bronchial veins, and other veins draining the mediastinal region, and leads to the superior vena cava
Hemiazygos vein Smaller vein complementary to the azygos vein; drains the esophageal veins from the esophagus and the left intercostal veins, and leads to the brachiocephalic vein via the superior intercostal vein
Table 20.15: Major Veins of the Head and Neck
Vessel Description
Internal jugular vein Parallel to the common carotid artery, which is more or less its counterpart, and passes through the jugular foramen and canal; primarily drains blood from the brain, receives the superficial facial vein, and empties into the subclavian vein
Temporal vein Drains blood from the temporal region and flows into the external jugular vein
Maxillary vein Drains blood from the maxillary region and flows into the external jugular vein
External jugular vein Drains blood from the more superficial portions of the head, scalp, and cranial regions, and leads to the subclavian vein
Table 20.16: Major Veins of the Brain
Vessel Description
Superior sagittal sinus Enlarged vein located midsagittally between the meningeal and periosteal layers of the dura mater within the falx cerebri; receives most of the blood drained from the superior surface of the cerebrum and leads to the inferior jugular vein and the vertebral vein
Great cerebral vein Receives most of the smaller vessels from the inferior cerebral veins and leads to the straight sinus
Straight sinus Enlarged vein that drains blood from the brain; receives most of the blood from the great cerebral vein and leads to the left or right transverse sinus
Cavernous sinus Enlarged vein that receives blood from most of the other cerebral veins and the eye socket, and leads to the petrosal sinus
Petrosal sinus Enlarged vein that receives blood from the cavernous sinus and leads into the internal jugular veins
Occipital sinus Enlarged vein that drains the occipital region near the falx cerebelli and leads to the left and right transverse sinuses, and also the vertebral veins
Transverse sinuses Pair of enlarged veins near the lambdoid suture that drains the occipital, sagittal, and straight sinuses, and leads to the sigmoid sinuses
Sigmoid sinuses Enlarged vein that receives blood from the transverse sinuses and leads through the jugular foramen to the internal jugular vein
Table 20.17: Veins of the Upper Limbs
Vessel Description
Digital veins Drain the digits and lead to the palmar arches of the hand and dorsal venous arch of the foot
Palmar venous arches Drain the hand and digits, and lead to the radial vein, ulnar veins, and the median antebrachial vein
Radial vein Vein that parallels the radius and radial artery; arises from the palmar venous arches and leads to the brachial vein
Ulnar vein Vein that parallels the ulna and ulnar artery; arises from the palmar venous arches and leads to the brachial vein
Brachial vein Deeper vein of the arm that forms from the radial and ulnar veins in the lower arm; leads to the axillary vein
Median antebrachial vein Vein that parallels the ulnar vein but is more medial in location; intertwines with the palmar venous arches; leads to the basilic vein
Basilic vein Superficial vein of the arm that arises from the median antebrachial vein, intersects with the median cubital vein, parallels the ulnar vein, and continues into the upper arm; along with the brachial vein, it leads to the axillary vein
Median cubital vein Superficial vessel located in the antecubital region that links the cephalic vein to the basilic vein in the form of a v; a frequent site from which to draw blood
Cephalic vein Superficial vessel in the upper arm; leads to the axillary vein
Subscapular vein Drains blood from the subscapular region and leads to the axillary vein
Axillary vein The major vein in the axillary region; drains the upper limb and becomes the subclavian vein
Table 20.18: Major Veins of the Abdominal Region
Vessel Description
Inferior vena cava Large systemic vein that drains blood from areas largely inferior to the diaphragm; empties into the right atrium
Lumbar veins Series of veins that drain the lumbar portion of the abdominal wall and spinal cord; the ascending lumbar veins drain into the azygos vein on the right or the hemiazygos vein on the left; the remaining lumbar veins drain directly into the inferior vena cava
Renal vein Largest vein entering the inferior vena cava; drains the kidneys and flows into the inferior vena cava
Adrenal vein Drains the adrenal or suprarenal; the right adrenal vein enters the inferior vena cava directly and the left adrenal vein enters the left renal vein
Testicular vein Drains the testes and forms part of the spermatic cord; the right testicular vein empties directly into the inferior vena cava and the left testicular vein empties into the left renal vein
Ovarian vein Drains the ovary; the right ovarian vein empties directly into the inferior vena cava and the left ovarian vein empties into the left renal vein
Gonadal vein Generic term for a vein draining a reproductive organ; may be either an ovarian vein or a testicular vein, depending on the sex of the individual
Phrenic vein Drains the diaphragm; the right phrenic vein flows into the inferior vena cava and the left phrenic vein empties into the left renal vein
Hepatic vein Drains systemic blood from the liver and flows into the inferior vena cava
Table 20.19: Veins of the Lower Limbs
Vessel Description
Plantar veins Drain the foot and flow into the plantar venous arch
Dorsal venous arch Drains blood from digital veins and vessels on the superior surface of the foot
Plantar venous arch Formed from the plantar veins; flows into the anterior and posterior tibial veins through anastomoses
Anterior tibial vein Formed from the dorsal venous arch; drains the area near the tibialis anterior muscle and flows into the popliteal vein
Posterior tibial vein Formed from the dorsal venous arch; drains the area near the posterior surface of the tibia and flows into the popliteal vein
Fibular vein Drains the muscles and integument near the fibula and flows into the popliteal vein
Small saphenous vein Located on the lateral surface of the leg; drains blood from the superficial regions of the lower leg and foot, and flows into the popliteal vein
Popliteal vein Drains the region behind the knee and forms from the fusion of the fibular, anterior, and posterior tibial veins; flows into the femoral vein
Great saphenous vein Prominent surface vessel located on the medial surface of the leg and thigh; drains the superficial portions of these areas and flows into the femoral vein
Deep femoral vein Drains blood from the deeper portions of the thigh and flows into the femoral vein
Femoral circumflex vein Forms a loop around the femur just inferior to the trochanters; drains blood from the areas around the head and neck of the femur; flows into the femoral vein
Femoral vein Drains the upper leg; receives blood from the great saphenous vein, the deep femoral vein, and the femoral circumflex vein; becomes the external iliac vein when it crosses the body wall
External iliac vein Formed when the femoral vein passes into the body cavity; drains the legs and flows into the common iliac vein
Internal iliac vein Drains the pelvic organs and integument; formed from several smaller veins in the region; flows into the common iliac vein
Middle sacral vein Drains the sacral region and flows into the left common iliac vein
Common iliac vein Flows into the inferior vena cava at the level of L5; the left common iliac vein drains the sacral region; formed from the union of the external and internal iliac veins near the inferior portion of the sacroiliac joint

Chapter 21

Table 21.1: Lymphocytes
Type of lymphocyte Primary function
B lymphocyte Generates diverse antibodies
T lymphocyte Secretes chemical messengers
Plasma cell Secretes antibodies
NK cell Destroys virally infected cells
Table 21.2: Barrier Defenses
Site Specific defense Protective aspect
Skin Epidermal surface Keratinized cells of surface, Langerhans cells
Skin (sweat/secretions) Sweat glands, sebaceous glands Low pH, washing action
Oral cavity Salivary glands Lysozyme
Stomach Gastrointestinal tract Low pH
Mucosal surfaces Mucosal epithelium Nonkeratinized epithelial cells
Normal flora (nonpathogenic bacteria) Mucosal tissues Prevent pathogens from growing on mucosal surfaces
Table 21.3: Phagocytic Cells of the Innate Immune System
Cell Cell type Primary location Function in the innate immune response
Macrophage Agranulocyte Body cavities/organs Phagocytosis
Neutrophil Granulocyte Blood Phagocytosis
Monocyte Agranulocyte Blood Precursor of macrophage/dendritic cell
Table 21.4: Classes of Antigen-presenting Cells
MHC Cell type Phagocytic? Function
Class I Many No Stimulates cytotoxic T cell immune response
Class II Macrophage Yes Stimulates phagocytosis and presentation at primary infection site
Class II Dendritic Yes, in tissues Brings antigens to regional lymph nodes
Class II B cell Yes, internalizes surface Ig and antigen Stimulates antibody secretion by B cells
Table 21.5: Functions of T Cell Types and Their Cytokines
T cell Main target Function Pathogen Surface marker MHC Cytokines or mediators
Tc Infected cells Cytotoxicity Intracellular CD8 Class I Perforins, granzymes, and fas ligand
Th1 Macrophage Helper inducer Extracellular CD4 Class II Interferon-γ and TGF-β
Th2 B cell Helper inducer Extracellular CD4 Class II IL-4, IL-6, IL-10, and others
Treg Th cell Suppressor None CD4, CD25 ? TGF-β and IL-10
Table 21.6: Active versus Passive Immunity
Immunity Type Natural Artificial
Active Adaptive immune response Vaccine response
Passive Trans-placental antibodies/breastfeeding Immune globulin injections
Table 21.7: Autoimmune Diseases
Disease Autoantigen Symptoms
Celiac disease Tissue transglutaminase Damage to small intestine
Diabetes mellitus type I Beta cells of pancreas Low insulin production; inability to regulate serum glucose
Graves’ disease Thyroid-stimulating hormone receptor (antibody blocks receptor) Hyperthyroidism
Hashimoto’s thyroiditis Thyroid-stimulating hormone receptor (antibody mimics hormone and stimulates receptor) Hypothyroidism
Lupus erythematosus Nuclear DNA and proteins Damage of many body systems
Myasthenia gravis Acetylcholine receptor in neuromuscular junctions Debilitating muscle weakness
Rheumatoid arthritis Joint capsule antigens Chronic inflammation of joints
Table 21.8: Partial Table of Alleles of the Human MHC (Class I)
Gene # of alleles # of possible MHC I protein components
A 2132 1527
B 2798 2110
C 1672 1200
E 11 3
F 22 4
G 50 16
Table 21.9: Partial Table of Alleles of the Human MHC (Class II)
Gene # of alleles # of possible MHC II protein components
DRA 7 2
DRB 1297 958
DQA1 49 31
DQB1 179 128
DPA1 36 18
DPB1 158 136
DMA 7 4
DMB 13 7
DOA 12 3
DOB 13 5
Table 21.10: Effects of Stress on Body Systems
System Stress-related illness
Integumentary system Acne, skin rashes, irritation
Nervous system Headaches, depression, anxiety, irritability, loss of appetite, lack of motivation, reduced mental performance
Muscular and skeletal systems Muscle and joint pain, neck and shoulder pain
Circulatory system Increased heart rate, hypertension, increased probability of heart attacks
Digestive system Indigestion, heartburn, stomach pain, nausea, diarrhea, constipation, weight gain or loss
Immune system Depressed ability to fight infections
Male reproductive system Lowered sperm production, impotence, reduced sexual desire
Female reproductive system Irregular menstrual cycle, reduced sexual desire

Chapter 22

Table 22.1: Pulmonary Function Testing
Pulmonary function test Instrument Measures Function
Spirometry Spirometer Forced vital capacity (FVC) Volume of air that is exhaled after maximum inhalation
Forced expiratory volume (FEV) Volume of air exhaled in one breath
Forced expiratory flow, 25-75 percent Air flow in the middle of exhalation
Peak expiratory flow Rate of exhalation
Maximum voluntary ventilation (MVV) Volume of air that can be inspired and expired in 1 minute
Slow vital capacity (SVC) Volume of air that can be slowly exhaled after inhaling past the tidal volume
Total lung capacity (TLC) Volume of air left in the lungs after maximum inhalation
Functional residual capacity (FRC) Volume of air left in the lungs after normal expiration
Residual volume (RV) Volume of air in the lungs after maximum exhalation
Total lung capacity (TLC) Maximum volume of air that the lungs can hold
Expiratory reserve volume (ERV) The volume of air that can be exhaled beyond normal exhalation
Gas diffusion Blood gas analyzer Arterial blood gases Concentration of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood
Table 22.2: Summary of Ventilation Regulation
System component Function
Medullary respiratory renter Sets the basic rhythm of breathing
Ventral respiratory group (VRG) Generates the breathing rhythm and integrates data coming into the medulla
Dorsal respiratory group (DRG) Integrates input from the stretch receptors and the chemoreceptors in the periphery
Pontine respiratory group (PRG) Influences and modifies the medulla oblongata’s functions
Aortic body Monitors blood PCO2, PO2, and pH
Carotid body Monitors blood PCO2, PO2, and pH
Hypothalamus Monitors emotional state and body temperature
Cortical areas of the brain Control voluntary breathing
Proprioceptors Send impulses regarding joint and muscle movements
Pulmonary irritant reflexes Protect the respiratory zones of the system from foreign material
Inflation reflex Protects the lungs from over-inflating
Table 22.3: Partial Pressures of Atmospheric Gases
Gas Percent of total composition Partial pressure

(mm Hg)
Nitrogen (N2) 78.6 597.4
Oxygen (O2) 20.9 158.8
Water (H2O) 0.04 3.0
Carbon dioxide (CO2) 0.004 0.3
Others 0.0006 0.5
Total composition/total atmospheric pressure 100% 760.0
Table 22.4: Composition and Partial Pressures of Alveolar Air
Gas Percent of total composition Partial pressure

(mm Hg)
Nitrogen (N2) 74.9 569
Oxygen (O2) 13.7 104
Water (H2O) 6.2 40
Carbon dioxide (CO2) 5.2 47
Total composition/total alveolar pressure 100% 760.0
Table 22.5: Partial Pressure of Oxygen at Different Altitudes
Example location Altitude (feet above sea level) Atmospheric pressure (mm Hg) Partial pressure of oxygen (mm Hg)
New York City, New York 0 760 159
Boulder, Colorado 5000 632 133
Aspen, Colorado 8000 565 118
Pike’s Peak, Colorado 14,000 447 94
Denali (Mt. McKinley), Alaska 20,000 350 73
Mt. Everest, Tibet 29,000 260 54

Chapter 23

Table 23.1: Contribution of Other Body Systems to the Digestive System
Body system Benefits received by the digestive system
Cardiovascular Blood supplies digestive organs with oxygen and processed nutrients; absorption of nutrients
Endocrine Endocrine hormones help regulate secretion in digestive glands and accessory organs
Integumentary Skin helps protect digestive organs and synthesizes vitamin D for calcium absorption
Lymphatic Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue and other lymphatic tissue defend against entry of pathogens; lacteals absorb lipids; and lymphatic vessels transport lipids to bloodstream
Muscular Skeletal muscles support and protect abdominal organs
Nervous Sensory and motor neurons help regulate secretions and muscle contractions in the digestive tract
Respiratory Respiratory organs provide oxygen and remove carbon dioxide
Skeletal Bones help protect and support digestive organs
Urinary Kidneys convert vitamin D into its active form, allowing calcium absorption in the small intestine
Table 23.2: The Five Major Peritoneal Folds
Fold Description
Greater omentum Apron-like structure that lies superficial to the small intestine and transverse colon; a site of fat deposition in people who are overweight
Falciform ligament Anchors the liver to the anterior abdominal wall and inferior border of the diaphragm
Lesser omentum Suspends the stomach from the inferior border of the liver; provides a pathway for structures connecting to the liver
Mesentery Vertical band of tissue anterior to the lumbar vertebrae and anchoring all of the small intestine except the initial portion (the duodenum)
Mesocolon Attaches two portions of the large intestine (the transverse and sigmoid colon) to the posterior abdominal wall
Table 23.3: Functions of the Digestive Organs
Organ Major functions Other functions
Mouth
  • Ingests food
  • Chews and mixes food
  • Begins chemical breakdown of carbohydrates
  • Moves food into the pharynx
  • Begins breakdown of lipids via lingual lipase
  • Moistens and dissolves food, allowing you to taste it
  • Cleans and lubricates the teeth and oral cavity
  • Has some antimicrobial activity
Pharynx
  • Propels food from the oral cavity to the esophagus
  • Lubricates food and passageways
Esophagus
  • Propels food to the stomach
  • Lubricates food and passageways
Stomach
  • Mixes and churns food with gastric juices to form chyme
  • Begins chemical breakdown of proteins
  • Releases food into the duodenum as chyme
  • Absorbs some fat-soluble substances (for example, alcohol, aspirin)
  • Possesses antimicrobial functions
  • Stimulates protein-digesting enzymes
  • Secretes intrinsic factor required for vitamin B12 absorption in small intestine
Small intestine
  • Mixes chyme with digestive juices
  • Propels food at a rate slow enough for digestion and absorption
  • Absorbs breakdown products of carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids, along with vitamins, minerals, and water
  • Performs physical digestion via segmentation
  • Provides optimal medium for enzymatic activity
Accessory organs
  • Liver: produces bile salts, which emulsify lipids, aiding their digestion and absorption
  • Gallbladder: stores, concentrates, and releases bile
  • Pancreas: produces digestive enzymes and bicarbonate
  • Bicarbonate-rich pancreatic juices help neutralize acidic chyme and provide optimal environment for enzymatic activity
Large intestine
  • Further breaks down food residues
  • Absorbs most residual water, electrolytes, and vitamins produced by enteric bacteria
  • Propels feces toward rectum
  • Eliminates feces
  • Food residue is concentrated and temporarily stored prior to defecation
  • Mucus eases passage of feces through colon
Table 23.4 Digestive Functions of the Mouth
Structure Action Outcome
Lips and cheeks Confine food between teeth
  • Food is chewed evenly during mastication
Salivary glands Secrete saliva
  • Moisten and lubricate the lining of the mouth and pharynx
  • Moisten, soften, and dissolve food
  • Clean the mouth and teeth
  • Salivary amylase breaks down starch
Tongue’s extrinsic muscles Move tongue sideways, and in and out
  • Manipulate food for chewing
  • Shape food into a bolus
  • Manipulate food for swallowing
Tongue’s intrinsic muscles Change tongue shape
  • Manipulate food for swallowing
Taste buds Sense food in mouth and sense taste
  • Nerve impulses from taste buds are conducted to salivary nuclei in the brain stem and then to salivary glands, stimulating saliva secretion
Lingual glands Secrete lingual lipase
  • Activated in the stomach
  • Break down triglycerides into fatty acids and diglycerides
Teeth Shred and crush food
  • Break down solid food into smaller particles for deglutition
Table 23.5 Digestive Functions of the Esophagus
Action Outcome
Upper esophageal sphincter relaxation Allows the bolus to move from the laryngopharynx to the esophagus
Peristalsis Propels the bolus through the esophagus
Lower esophageal sphincter relaxation Allows the bolus to move from the esophagus into the stomach and prevents chime from entering the esophagus
Mucus secretion Lubricates the esophagus, allowing easy passage of the bolus
Table 23.6: Hormones Secreted by the Stomach 
Hormone Production site Production stimulus Target organ Action
Gastrin Stomach mucosa, mainly G cells of the pyloric antrum Presence of peptides and amino acids in stomach Stomach Increases secretion by gastric glands; promotes gastric emptying
Gastrin Stomach mucosa, mainly G cells of the pyloric antrum Presence of peptides and amino acids in stomach Small intestine Promotes intestinal muscle contraction
Gastrin Stomach mucosa, mainly G cells of the pyloric antrum Presence of peptides and amino acids in stomach Ileocecal valve Relaxes valve
Gastrin Stomach mucosa, mainly G cells of the pyloric antrum Presence of peptides and amino acids in stomach Large intestine Triggers mass movements
Ghrelin Stomach mucosa, mainly fundus Fasting state (levels increase just prior to meals) Hypothalamus Regulates food intake, primarily by stimulating hunger and satiety
Histamine Stomach mucosa Presence of food in the stomach Stomach Stimulates parietal cells to release HCl
Serotonin Stomach mucosa Presence of food in the stomach Stomach Contracts stomach muscle
Somatostatin Mucosa of stomach, especially pyloric antrum; also duodenum Presence of food in the stomach; sympathetic axon stimulation Stomach Restricts all gastric secretions, gastric motility, and emptying
Somatostatin Mucosa of stomach, especially pyloric antrum; also duodenum Presence of food in the stomach; sympathetic axon stimulation Pancreas Restricts pancreatic secretions
Somatostatin Mucosa of stomach, especially pyloric antrum; also duodenum Presence of food in the stomach; sympathetic axon stimulation Small intestine Reduces intestinal absorption by reducing blood flow
Table 23.7: Cells of the Small Intestinal Mucosa
Cell type Location in the mucosa Function
Absorptive Epithelium/intestinal glands Digestion and absorption of nutrients in chyme
Goblet Epithelium/intestinal glands Secretion of mucus
Paneth Intestinal glands Secretion of the bactericidal enzyme lysozyme; phagocytosis
G cells Intestinal glands of duodenum Secretion of the hormone intestinal gastrin
I cells Intestinal glands of duodenum Secretion of the hormone cholecystokinin (CCK), which stimulates release of pancreatic juices and bile
K cells Intestinal glands Secretion of the hormone glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide, which stimulates the release of insulin
M cells Intestinal glands of duodenum and jejunum Secretion of the hormone motilin, which accelerates gastric emptying, stimulates intestinal peristalsis, and stimulates the production of pepsin
S cells Intestinal glands Secretion of the hormone secretin
Table 23.8: The Digestive Enzymes
Enzyme Category Enzyme Name Source Substrate Product
Salivary Enzymes Lingual lipase Lingual glands Triglycerides Free fatty acids, and mono- and diglycerides
Salivary Enzymes Salivary amylase Salivary glands Polysaccharides Disaccharides and trisaccharides
Gastric enzymes Gastric lipase Chief cells Triglycerides Fatty acids and monoacylglycerides
Gastric enzymes Pepsin* Chief cells Proteins Peptides
Brush border enzymes α-Dextrinase Small intestine α-Dextrins Glucose
Brush border enzymes Enteropeptidase Small intestine Trypsinogen Trypsin
Brush border enzymes Lactase Small intestine Lactose Glucose and galactose
Brush border enzymes Maltase Small intestine Maltose Glucose
Brush border enzymes Nucleosidases and phosphatases Small intestine Nucleotides Phosphates, nitrogenous bases, and pentoses
Brush border enzymes Peptidases Small intestine
  • Aminopeptidase: amino acids at the amino end of peptides
  • Dipeptidase: dipeptides
  • Aminopeptidase: amino acids and peptides
  • Dipeptidase: amino acids
Brush border enzymes Sucrase Small intestine Sucrose Glucose and fructose
Pancreatic enzymes Carboxy-peptidase* Pancreatic acinar cells Amino acids at the carboxyl end of peptides Amino acids and peptides
Pancreatic enzymes Chymotrypsin* Pancreatic acinar cells Proteins Peptides
Pancreatic enzymes Elastase* Pancreatic acinar cells Proteins Peptides
Pancreatic enzymes Nucleases Pancreatic acinar cells
  • Ribonuclease: ribonucleic acids
  • Deoxyribonuclease: deoxyribonucleic acids
 Nucleotides
Pancreatic enzymes Pancreatic amylase Pancreatic acinar cells Polysaccharides (starches) α-Dextrins, disaccharides (maltose), trisaccharides (maltotriose)
Pancreatic enzymes Pancreatic lipase Pancreatic acinar cells Triglycerides that have been emulsified by bile salts Fatty acids and monoacylglycerides
Pancreatic enzymes Trypsin* Pancreatic acinar cells Proteins Peptides

*These enzymes have been activated by other substances.

Table 23.9: Absorbable Food Substances
Source Substance
Carbohydrates Monosaccharides: glucose, galactose, and fructose
Proteins Single amino acids, dipeptides, and tripeptides
Triglycerides Monoacylglycerides, glycerol, and free fatty acids
Nucleic acids Pentose sugars, phosphates, and nitrogenous bases
Table 23.10: Absorption in the Alimentary Canal
Food Breakdown products Absorption mechanism Entry to bloodstream Destination
Carbohydrates Glucose Co-transport with sodium ions Capillary blood in villi Liver via hepatic portal vein
Carbohydrates Galactose Co-transport with sodium ions Capillary blood in villi Liver via hepatic portal vein
Carbohydrates Fructose Facilitated diffusion Capillary blood in villi Liver via hepatic portal vein
Protein Amino acids Co-transport with sodium ions Capillary blood in villi Liver via hepatic portal vein
Lipids Long-chain fatty acids Diffusion into intestinal cells, where they are combined with proteins to create chylomicrons Lacteals of villi Systemic circulation via lymph entering thoracic duct
Lipids Monoacylglycerides Diffusion into intestinal cells, where they are combined with proteins to create chylomicrons Lacteals of villi Systemic circulation via lymph entering thoracic duct
Lipids Short-chain fatty acids Simple diffusion Capillary blood in villi Liver via hepatic portal vein
Lipids Glycerol Simple diffusion Capillary blood in villi Liver via hepatic portal vein
Lipids Nucleic acid digestion products Active transport via membrane carriers Capillary blood in villi Liver via hepatic portal vein

Chapter 24

Table 24.1: Catabolic Hormones
Hormone Function
Cortisol Released from the adrenal gland in response to stress; its main role is to increase blood glucose levels by gluconeogenesis (breaking down fats and proteins)
Glucagon Released from alpha cells in the pancreas either when starving or when the body needs to generate additional energy; it stimulates the breakdown of glycogen (glycogenolysis) and the production of glucose (gluconeogenesis) in the liver to increase blood glucose levels; its effect is the opposite of insulin; glucagon and insulin are a part of a negative-feedback system that stabilizes blood glucose levels
Adrenaline/epinephrine Released in response to the activation of the sympathetic nervous system; increases heart rate and heart contractility, constricts blood vessels, is a bronchodilator that opens (dilates) the bronchi of the lungs to increase air volume in the lungs, and stimulates gluconeogenesis
Table 24.2: Anabolic Hormones
Hormone Function
Growth hormone (GH) Synthesized and released from the pituitary gland; stimulates the growth of cells, tissues, and bones
Insulin-like growth factor (IGF) Stimulates the growth of muscle and bone while also inhibiting cell death (apoptosis)
Insulin Produced by the beta cells of the pancreas; plays an essential role in carbohydrate and fat metabolism, controls blood glucose levels, and promotes the uptake of glucose into body cells; causes cells in muscle, adipose tissue, and liver to take up glucose from the blood and store it in the liver and muscle as glycogen (glycogen synthesis); its effect is the opposite of glucagon; glucagon and insulin are a part of a negative-feedback system that stabilizes blood glucose levels
Testosterone Produced by the testes in males and the ovaries in females; stimulates an increase in muscle mass and strength as well as the growth and strengthening of bone
Estrogen Produced primarily by the ovaries, it is also produced by the liver and adrenal glands; its anabolic functions include increasing metabolism and fat deposition
Table 24.3: Fat-soluble Vitamins
Vitamin and alternative name Sources Recommended daily allowance Function Problems associated with deficiency
A

retinal or β-carotene
 Yellow and orange fruits and vegetables, dark green leafy vegetables, eggs, milk, liver 700–900 µg Eye and bone development, immune function Night blindness, epithelial changes, immune system deficiency
D

cholecalciferol
 Dairy products, egg yolks; also synthesized in the skin from exposure to sunlight 5–15 µg Aids in calcium absorption, promoting bone growth Rickets, bone pain, muscle weakness, increased risk of death from cardiovascular disease, cognitive impairment, asthma in children, cancer
E

tocopherols
 Seeds, nuts, vegetable oils, avocados, wheat germ 15 mg Antioxidant Anemia
K

phylloquinone
 Dark green leafy vegetables, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage 90–120 µg Blood clotting, bone health Hemorrhagic disease of newborn in infants; uncommon in adults
Table 24.4: Water-soluble Vitamins
Vitamin and alternative name Sources Recommended daily allowance Function Problems associated with deficiency
B1

thiamine
 Whole grains, enriched bread and cereals, milk, meat 1.1–1.2 mg Carbohydrate metabolism Beriberi, Wernicke-Korsikoff syndrome
B2

riboflavin
 Brewer’s yeast, almonds, milk, organ meats, legumes, enriched breads and cereals, broccoli, asparagus 1.1–1.3 mg Synthesis of FAD for metabolism, production of red blood cells Fatigue, slowed growth, digestive problems, light sensitivity, epithelial problems like cracks in the corners of the mouth
B3

niacin
 Meat, fish, poultry, enriched breads and cereals, peanuts 14–16 mg Synthesis of NAD for metabolism, nerve function, cholesterol production Cracked, scaly skin; dementia; diarrhea; also known as pellagra
B5

pantothenic acid
 Meat, poultry, potatoes, oats, enriched breads and cereals, tomatoes 5 mg Synthesis of coenzyme A in fatty acid metabolism Rare: symptoms may include fatigue, insomnia, depression, irritability
B6

pyridoxine
 Potatoes, bananas, beans, seeds, nuts, meat, poultry, fish, eggs, dark green leafy vegetables, soy, organ meats 1.3–1.5 mg Sodium and potassium balance, red blood cell synthesis, protein metabolism Confusion, irritability, depression, mouth and tongue sores
B7

biotin
 Liver, fruits, meats 30 µg Cell growth, metabolism of fatty acids, production of blood cells Rare in developed countries; symptoms include dermatitis, hair loss, loss of muscular coordination
B9

folic acid
 Liver, legumes, dark green leafy vegetables, enriched breads and cereals, citrus fruits 400 µg DNA/protein synthesis Poor growth, gingivitis, appetite loss, shortness of breath, gastrointestinal problems, mental deficits
B12

cyanocobalamin
 Fish, meat, poultry, dairy products, eggs 2.4 µg Fatty acid oxidation, nerve cell function, red blood cell production Pernicious anemia, leading to nerve cell damage
C

ascorbic acid
 Citrus fruits, red berries, peppers, tomatoes, broccoli, dark green leafy vegetables 75–90 mg Necessary to produce collagen for formation of connective tissue and teeth, and for wound healing Dry hair, gingivitis, bleeding gums, dry and scaly skin, slow wound healing, easy bruising, compromised immunity; can lead to scurvy
Table 24.5: Major Minerals
Mineral Sources Recommended daily allowance Function Problems associated with deficiency
Potassium Meats, some fish, fruits, vegetables, legumes, dairy products 4700 mg Nerve and muscle function; acts as an electrolyte Hypokalemia: weakness, fatigue, muscle cramping, gastrointestinal problems, cardiac problems
Sodium Table salt, milk, beets, celery, processed foods 2300 mg Blood pressure, blood volume, muscle and nerve function Rare
Calcium Dairy products, dark green leafy vegetables, blackstrap molasses, nuts, brewer’s yeast, some fish 1000 mg Bone structure and health; nerve and muscle functions, especially cardiac function; blood cloting Slow growth, weak and brittle bones
Phosphorous Meat, milk 700 mg Bone formation, metabolism, ATP production Rare
Magnesium Whole grains, nuts, leafy green vegetables 310–420 mg Enzyme activation, production of energy, regulation of other nutrients; enzyme cofactor (essential for metabolism) Agitation, anxiety, sleep problems, nausea and vomiting, abnormal heart rhythms, low blood pressure, muscular problems
Chloride Most foods, salt, vegetables, especially seaweed, tomatoes, lettuce, celery, olives 2300 mg Balance of body fluids, digestion Loss of appetite, muscle cramps
Table 24.6: Trace Minerals
Mineral Sources Recommended daily allowance Function Problems associated with deficiency
Iron Meat, poultry, fish, shellfish, legumes, nuts, seeds, whole grains, dark leafy green vegetables 8–18 mg Transport of oxygen in blood, production of ATP Anemia, weakness, fatigue
Zinc Meat, fish, poultry, cheese, shellfish 8–11 mg Immunity, reproduction, growth, blood clotting, insulin and thyroid function Loss of appetite, poor growth, weight loss, skin problems, hair loss, vision problems, lack of taste or smell
Copper Seafood, organ meats, nuts, legumes, chocolate, enriched breads and cereals, some fruits and vegetables 900 µg Red blood cell production, nerve and immune system function, collagen formation, acts as an antioxidant; enzyme cofactor (essential for metabolism) Anemia, low body temperature, bone fractures, low white blood cell concentration, irregular heartbeat, thyroid problems
Iodine Fish, shellfish, garlic, lima beans, sesame seeds, soybeans, dark leafy green vegetables 150 µg Thyroid function Hypothyroidism: fatigue, weight gain, dry skin, temperature sensitivity
Sulfur Eggs, meat, poultry, fish, legumes None Component of amino acids; enzyme cofactor Protein deficiency
Fluoride Fluoridated water 3–4 mg Maintenance of bone and tooth structure Increased cavities, weak bones and teeth
Manganese Nuts, seeds, whole grains, legumes 1.8–2.3 mg Formation of connective tissue and bones, blood clotting, sex hormone development, metabolism, brain and nerve function; enzyme cofactor (essential for metabolism) Infertility, bone malformation, weakness, seizures
Cobalt Fish, nuts, leafy green vegetables, whole grains None Component of B12 None
Selenium Brewer’s yeast, wheat germ, liver, butter, fish, shellfish, whole grains 55 µg Antioxidant, thyroid function, immune system function Muscle pain
Chromium Whole grains, lean meats, cheese, black pepper, thyme, brewer’s yeast 25–35 µg Insulin function High blood sugar, triglyceride, and cholesterol levels
Molybdenum Legumes, whole grains, nuts 45 µg Cofactor for enzymes Rare

Chapter 25

Table 25.1: Substances Secreted or Reabsorbed in the Nephron and Their Locations
Substance PCT Loop of Henle DCT Collecting ducts
Glucose Almost 100 percent reabsorbed; secondary active transport with Na+ N/A N/A N/A
Oligopeptides, proteins, amino acids Almost 100 percent reabsorbed; symport with Na+ N/A N/A N/A
Vitamins Reabsorbed N/A N/A N/A
Lactate Reabsorbed N/A N/A N/A
Creatinine Secreted N/A N/A N/A
Urea 50 percent reabsorbed by diffusion; also secreted Secretion, diffusion in descending limb N/A Reabsorption in medullary collecting ducts; diffusion
Sodium 65 percent actively reabsorbed 25 percent reabsorbed in thick ascending limb; active transport 5 percent reabsorbed; active 5 percent reabsorbed, stimulated by aldosterone; active
Chloride Reabsorbed, symport with Na+, diffusion Reabsorbed in thin and thick ascending limb; diffusion in ascending limb Reabsorbed; diffusion Reabsorbed; symport
Water 67 percent reabsorbed osmotically with solutes 15 percent reabsorbed in descending limb; osmosis 8 percent reabsorbed if ADH; osmosis Variable amounts reabsorbed, controlled by ADH, osmosis
Bicarbonate 80–90 percent symport reabsorption with Na+ Reabsorbed, symport with Na+ and antiport with Cl–; in ascending limb N/A Reabsorbed antiport with Cl–
H+ Secreted; diffusion N/A Secreted; active Secreted; active
NH4+ Secreted; diffusion N/A Secreted; diffusion Secreted; diffusion
HCO3– Reabsorbed; diffusion Reabsorbed; diffusion in ascending limb Reabsorbed; diffusion Reabsorbed; antiport with Na+
Some drugs Secreted N/A Secreted; active Secreted; active
Potassium 65 percent reabsorbed; diffusion 20 percent reabsorbed in thick ascending limb; symport Secreted; active Secretion controlled by aldosterone; active
Calcium Reabsorbed; diffusion Reabsorbed in thick ascending limb; diffusion N/A Reabsorbed if parathyroid hormone present; active
Magnesium Reabsorbed; diffusion Reabsorbed in thick ascending limb; diffusion Reabsorbed N/A
Phosphate 85 percent reabsorbed, inhibited by parathyroid hormone, diffusion N/A Reabsorbed; diffusion N/A
Table 25.2: Paracrine Mechanisms Controlling Glomerular Filtration Rate
Change in GFR NaCl Absorption Role of ATP and adenosine/Role of NO Effect on GFR
Increased GFR Tubular NaCl increases ATP and adenosine increase, causing vasoconstriction Vasoconstriction slows GFR
Decreased GFR Tubular NaCl decreases ATP and adenosine decrease, causing vasodilation Vasodilation increases GFR
Table 25.3: Substances Secreted or Reabsorbed in the Nephron and Their Locations
Substance PCT Loop of Henle DCT Collecting ducts
Glucose Almost 100% reabsorbed; secondary active transport with Na+ N/A N/A N/A
Oligopeptides, proteins, amino acids Almost 100% reabsorbed; symport with Na+ N/A N/A N/A
Vitamins Reabsorbed N/A N/A N/A
Lactate Reabsorbed N/A N/A N/A
Creatinine Secreted N/A N/A N/A
Urea 50% reabsorbed by diffusion; also secreted Secretion, diffusion in descending limb N/A Reabsorption in medullary collecting ducts; diffusion
Sodium 65% actively reabsorbed 25 percent reabsorbed in thick ascending limb; active transport 5 percent reabsorbed; active 5 percent reabsorbed, stimulated by aldosterone; active
Chloride Reabsorbed, symport with Na+, diffusion Reabsorbed in thin and thick ascending limb; diffusion in ascending limb Reabsorbed; diffusion Reabsorbed; symport
Water 67% reabsorbed osmotically with solutes 15 percent reabsorbed in descending limb; osmosis 8 percent reabsorbed if ADH; osmosis Variable amounts reabsorbed, controlled by ADH, osmosis
Bicarbonate 80–90% symport reabsorption with Na+ Reabsorbed, symport with Na+ and antiport with Cl–; in ascending limb N/A Reabsorbed antiport with Cl–
H+ Secreted; diffusion N/A Secreted; active Secreted; active
NH4+ Secreted; diffusion N/A Secreted; diffusion Secreted; diffusion
HCO3– Reabsorbed; diffusion Reabsorbed; diffusion in ascending limb Reabsorbed; diffusion Reabsorbed; antiport with Na+
Some drugs Secreted N/A Secreted; active Secreted; active
Potassium 65% reabsorbed; diffusion 20 percent reabsorbed in thick ascending limb; symport Secreted; active Secretion controlled by aldosterone; active
Calcium Reabsorbed; diffusion Reabsorbed in thick ascending limb; diffusion N/A Reabsorbed if parathyroid hormone present; active
Magnesium Reabsorbed; diffusion Reabsorbed in thick ascending limb; diffusion Reabsorbed N/A
Phosphate 85% reabsorbed, inhibited by parathyroid hormone, diffusion N/A Reabsorbed; diffusion N/A
Table 25.4: Substances Filtered and Reabsorbed by the Kidney per 24 Hours
Substance Amount filtered (grams) Amount reabsorbed (grams) Amount in urine (grams)
Water 180 L 179 L 1 L
Proteins 10–20 10–20 0
Chlorine 630 625 5
Sodium 540 537 3
Bicarbonate 300 299.7 0.3
Glucose 180 180 0
Urea 53 28 25
Potassium 28 24 4
Uric acid 8.5 7.7 0.8
Creatinine 1.4 0 1.4
Table 25.5: Reabsorption of Major Solutes by the PCT
Basal membrane Apical membrane
Active transport Symport with Na+
Na+ (exchange for K+) K+
Facilitated diffusion Cl–
K+ Ca++
Cl– Mg++
Ca++ HCO3–
HCO3– PO43−
PO43− Amino acids
Amino acids Glucose
Glucose Fructose
Fructose Galactose
Galactose Lactate
Lactate Succinate
Succinate Citrate
Citrate Diffusion between nephron cells
— K+
— Ca++
— Mg++
Table 25.6: Normal Urine Characteristics
Characteristic Normal values
Color Pale yellow to deep amber
Odor Odorless
Volume 750–2000 mL/24 hour
pH 4.5–8.0
Specific gravity 1.003–1.032
Osmolarity 40–1350 mOsmol/kg
Urobilinogen 0.2–1.0 mg/100 mL
White blood cells 0–2 HPF (per high-power field of microscope)
Leukocyte esterase None
Protein None or trace
Bilirubin <0.3 mg/100 mL
Ketones None
Nitrites None
Blood None
Glucose None

Chapter 26

Table 26.1: Electrolyte and Ion Reference Values
Name Chemical symbol Plasma CSF Urine
Sodium Na+ 136.00–146.00 (mM) 138.00–150.00 (mM) 40.00–220.00 (mM)
Potassium K+ 3.50–5.00 (mM) 0.35–3.5 (mM) 25.00–125.00 (mM)
Chloride Cl– 98.00–107.00 (mM) 118.00–132.00 (mM) 110.00–250.00 (mM)
Bicarbonate HCO3– 22.00–29.00 (mM) —— ——
Calcium Ca++ 2.15–2.55 (mmol/day) —— Up to 7.49 (mmol/day)
Phosphate HPO42−HPO42− 0.81–1.45 (mmol/day) —— 12.90–42.00 (mmol/day)
Table 26.2: Common Causes of Metabolic Acidosis and Blood Metabolites
Cause Metabolite
Diarrhea Bicarbonate
Uremia Phosphoric, sulfuric, and lactic acids
Diabetic ketoacidosis Increased ketones
Strenuous exercise Lactic acid
Methanol Formic acid*
Paraldehyde β-Hydroxybutyric acid*
Isopropanol Propionic acid*
Ethylene glycol Glycolic acid, and some oxalic and formic acids*
Salicylate/aspirin Sulfasalicylic acid (SSA)*

*Acid metabolites from ingested chemical.

Table 26.3: Types of Acidosis and Alkalosis
Type pH pCO2 Total HCO3–
Metabolic acidosis ↓ N, then ↓ ↓
Respiratory acidosis ↓ ↑ N, then ↑
Metabolic alkalosis ↑ N, then↑ ↑
Respiratory alkalosis ↑ ↓ N, then ↓

*Reference values (arterial): pH: 7.35–7.45; pCO2: male: 35–48 mm Hg, female: 32–45 mm Hg; total venous bicarbonate: 22–29 mM. N denotes normal; ↑ denotes a rising or increased value; and ↓ denotes a falling or decreased value.

Chapter 27

Table 27.1: Development of the Secondary Sexual Characteristics due to Sex Hormones
Testosterone Estrogen
Increased larynx size and deepening of the voice Deposition of fat, predominantly in breasts and hips
Increased muscular development Breast development
Growth of facial, axillary, and pubic hair, and increased growth of body hair Broadening of the pelvis and growth of axillary and pubic hair

Chapter 28

Table 28.1: Functions of the Placenta
Nutrition and digestion Respiration Endocrine function
  • Mediates diffusion of maternal glucose, amino acids, fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals
  • Stores nutrients during early pregnancy to accommodate increased fetal demand later in pregnancy
  • Excretes and filters fetal nitrogenous wastes into maternal blood
  • Mediates maternal-to-fetal oxygen transport and fetal-to-maternal carbon dioxide transport
  • Secretes several hormones, including hCG, estrogens, and progesterone, to maintain the pregnancy and stimulate maternal and fetal development
  • Mediates the transmission of maternal hormones into fetal blood and vice versa
Table 28.2: Contributors to Weight Gain During Pregnancy
Component Weight (kg) Weight (lb)
Fetus 3.2–3.6 7–8
Placenta and fetal membranes 0.9–1.8 2–4
Amniotic fluid 0.9–1.4 2–3
Breast tissue 0.9–1.4 2–3
Blood 1.4 4
Fat 0.9–4.1 3–9
Uterus 0.9–2.3 2–5
Total 10–16.3 22–36
Table 28.2: Contributors to Weight Gain During Pregnancy
Component Weight (kg) Weight (lb)
Fetus 3.2–3.6 7–8
Placenta and fetal membranes 0.9–1.8 2–4
Amniotic fluid 0.9–1.4 2–3
Breast tissue 0.9–1.4 2–3
Blood 1.4 4
Fat 0.9–4.1 3–9
Uterus 0.9–2.3 2–5
Total 10–16.3 22–36
Table 28.4: Expression of Blood Types
Blood type Genotype Pattern of inheritance
A IAIA or IAi IAis dominant to i
B IBIB orIBi IB is dominant to i
AB IAIB IA is co-dominant to IB
O ii Two recessive alleles

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Anatomy & Physiology 2e Copyright © 2025 by Lindsay M. Biga, Staci Bronson, Sierra Dawson, Amy Harwell, Robin Hopkins, Joel Kaufmann, Mike LeMaster, Philip Matern, Katie Morrison-Graham, Kristen Oja, Devon Quick, Jon Runyeon, and OpenStax is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

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